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![Evolution of global temperature (black), atmospheric CO2 concentration (blue), CO2 concentration in air trapped in Antarctic icecores (magenta) and solar activity (yellow) over the 100 years from 1920 to 2020. Temperature and CO2 are scaled relative to each other as the physically expected CO2 effect on the climate predicts (that is, the best estimate of climate sensitivity). The sunspot activity curve shows average number of sun spots per year; its amplitude is scaled from the observed correlation of solar and temperature data. Data taken from the website RealClimate: Climate Science From Climate Scientists [http://www.realclimate.org/]. This graphic was produced using the the climate widget at this URL: [http://herdsoft.com/climate/widget/]. 1920 was chosen as the start date as it represents the start of the dominance of the internal combustion engine in transport on land, sea and air; at the start of the First World War, horse-drawn transport dominated, but by the end of that war motorised transport dominated. You can create a version of this graph for yourself, covering years of your own choice with the widget at [http://herdsoft.com/climate/widget/].](profile/David-Moore-25/publication/348167043/figure/fig2/AS:976413771452416@1609806592096/Evolution-of-global-temperature-black-atmospheric-CO2-concentration-blue-CO2.png)
Evolution of global temperature (black), atmospheric CO2 concentration (blue), CO2 concentration in air trapped in Antarctic icecores (magenta) and solar activity (yellow) over the 100 years from 1920 to 2020. Temperature and CO2 are scaled relative to each other as the physically expected CO2 effect on the climate predicts (that is, the best estimate of climate sensitivity). The sunspot activity curve shows average number of sun spots per year; its amplitude is scaled from the observed correlation of solar and temperature data. Data taken from the website RealClimate: Climate Science From Climate Scientists [http://www.realclimate.org/]. This graphic was produced using the the climate widget at this URL: [http://herdsoft.com/climate/widget/]. 1920 was chosen as the start date as it represents the start of the dominance of the internal combustion engine in transport on land, sea and air; at the start of the First World War, horse-drawn transport dominated, but by the end of that war motorised transport dominated. You can create a version of this graph for yourself, covering years of your own choice with the widget at [http://herdsoft.com/climate/widget/].
Source publication
We give a plain language guide to the Earth’s carbon cycle by briefly summarising the observations and origins of increased levels of greenhouse gases, mainly CO2 but including CH4 and N2O, in our atmosphere. The only tenable explanation for our atmosphere’s present state is that it is the consequence of mankind’s excessive use of fossil fuels sinc...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... climate change can be calculated from our understanding of the physical processes, and/or estimated from knowledge of the Earth's climate history. Both come to the conclusion that the average global warming due to the increase in CO2 to date, is expected to be about +1°C. This corresponds exactly to the measured observations of global warming (Fig. 4). As we have shown above, there is no natural explanation for this, meaning that the best estimate for the anthropogenic share of global warming since 1950 is ...
Context 2
... climate change can be calculated from our understanding of the physical processes, and/or estimated from knowledge of the Earth's climate history. Both come to the conclusion that the average global warming due to the increase in CO2 to date, is expected to be about +1°C. This corresponds exactly to the measured observations of global warming (Fig. 4). As we have shown above, there is no natural explanation for this, meaning that the best estimate for the anthropogenic share of global warming since 1950 is ...
Citations
... coniferous forest area in Japan, adapted fromMakita et al. (2018).Global average Q 10 value fromPatel et al. (2022).Photo fromMoore et al. (2021) ...
... Northern Hemisphere [27]. . Annual average Earth's temperature and atmospheric CO 2 concentration 1920-2020 [29]. ...
For billions of years, natural processes alone, often working over millennia, drove Earth’s temperature and climate. For the last several centuries, human activities are a new driving force that is acting on a very short time scale. Knowing history helps chart necessary future actions with greater confidence. Since the end of the 17<sup>th</sup> century, investigations relating to Earth’s temperature and its climate have evolved from only scientific interest to also include practical concerns triggered by global warming. The early studies were relatively episodic with gaps of a decade or more common until the mid 20<sup>th</sup> century when they burgeoned starting with the International Geophysical Year. From the early to mid 1800s, to the early to mid 20<sup>th</sup> century, the investigations were at the initiation of the individual researchers. Starting in the mid 1950s, the investigations became more extensive, comprehensive and interrelated. Early researchers inferred that the atmosphere played a role in Earth’s temperature, and as far back as the 1850s it was concluded that higher CO<sub>2</sub> concentrations in the atmosphere could result in warming Earth. Later investigations provided information on the mechanism which established that atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> concentration and its absorption and re-emitting of infrared radiation was a major factor in Earth’s temperature. Further, its increasing atmospheric concentration is a major driver of a warming globe at a rate far surpassing those detected in the geologic record. This paper traces the history of those researches based on the premise that knowing how we arrived at our current knowledge helps in supporting future research and actions to address the consequences of Earth’s warming.
... Continuing the audit analogy, an audit trail (a sequential record of the history and details around an event) finds intact shellfish shells through the whole of early human evolution [4,5], and into the deeper history of planet Earth as illustrated by the global reorganisations of carbonate accumulations from the Cretaceous to the Miocene (between 125 and 9 million years ago) [90][91][92]. ...
This study highlights the potential of ocean calcifiers to sequester atmospheric carbon in quantity and even reverse climate change. The study, which we hope will show why cultivating calcifiers in the short term would be advantageous, attempts to provide a different, biological, viewpoint of the published data bearing on two specific issues, namely ocean acidification and return of CO2 to the atmosphere by the calcification reaction itself. We find reasons to doubt the validity of both issues. Experiments showing ocean acidification is damaging to calcifiers have all used experimental pH levels that are not projected to be reached in the oceans until the next century or later; today’s oceans are alkaline. In open water habitats in equilibrium with the atmosphere, it may be true to claim precipitation of CaCO3 by calcification as a net source of atmospheric CO2, but only if the solidified limestone is ignored as sequestered CO2. In these kinds of conditions, the calcification response is not carried out by living calcifiers. The chemistry of life is distinguished from that of open water by occurring on enzyme polypeptide surfaces, inside organelles with phospholipid membranes that selectively absorb certain ions, and inside cells encased in phospholipid bilayer membranes. Nowadays, marine calcifiers (coccolithophore algae, Foraminifera [protists], Mollusca, Crustacea, Anthozoa [corals], Echinodermata and some annelids) convert atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) into solid calcium carbonate (CaCO3) protective shells which are left when they die. These organisms could be the biotechnological carbon capture and storage mechanism to control climate change. Ignoring what is known about the biology, physiology, and molecular biology of living calcifiers leads to erroneous conclusions and deficient advice about the potential for calcifier biotechnology to contribute to atmosphere remediation. We conclude that the world’s aquaculture industries already operate biotechnology that, with massive and immediate global expansion, can sustainably control atmospheric CO2 levels at a reasonable cost. We hope that this view of marine calcifiers will show the value and promise of the contribution that aquaculture could make to bringing equilibrium to the atmosphere.
... El crecimiento poblacional mundial, combinado con las consecuencias del cambio climático en la agricultura, representan un problema a resolver desde el punto de vista agroalimentario. Este problema se puede combatir optimizando e incrementando los rendimientos de los cultivos haciendo uso de herramientas biotecnológicas adecuadas (Moore et al., 2021). Un método ampliamente usado en la mejora de cultivos es generar plantas llamadas dobles haploides, se ha demostrado que está técnica que combina la genética con la biotecnología es de gran utilidad para fijar rasgos fenotípicos específicos en cortos periodos de tiempo; esta técnica puede hacerse in vivo y la meta es producir embriones haploides mediante la polinización aberrante usando polen muerto o inviable, este método estimula al ovulo para formar un embrión haploide sin fecundación (partenogénesis) y de esta forma, generar plantas homocigotas en la primer generación. ...
MIR genes are genes that give rise to microRNAs (miRNAs), which are small RNAs that regulate key developmental processes such as flowering and embryogenesis. Little is known about its role in the formation of gametes, seeds and fruits. This work demonstrates that the activity of the promoter of the MIR867 gene has a specific expression pattern in male tissue during flower development. Using two T-DNA insertional mutants, a reduction in fruit size (siliques) in length and thickness, and semi-sterility phenotype was demonstrated. To find the cellular reason for the semi-sterility, the Alexander staining technique of pollen grains was used observing that there is defective pollen in the mutant lines. This study is the first report that relates the MIR gene with fruit formation and semi-sterility if seeds in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana.
... The highenergy industries that most need to compensate their heavy carbon footprints have all the necessary skills and experience to take such large-scale efforts forward.Central governments should be persuaded and encouraged to fund shellfish cultivation to sequester atmospheric carbon as a contribution to their carbon neutrality goals. As well as making significant financial input to the projects most appropriate to them, their responsibilities could include political, legal and administrative facilitation of the anticipated projects [1][2][3][4]. ...
Atmospheric CO 2 is sequestered within shellfish shells as an indigestible, crystalline and chemically stable mix of calcium and calcium-magnesium carbonates; when the animal dies the shell remains for geological periods of time. Effectively, the CO 2 is permanently removed from the atmosphere. That's the animal's generous legacy and our inheritance. It is the certainty and permanence of the removal of CO 2 from the atmosphere that makes biotechnology using calcifying organisms so attractive as a means to ameliorate climate change. The shellfish cultivation industry is the only industry on the planet that can expand without damaging the atmosphere, we want shellfish producers to greatly expand their production specifically to generate more shell. The crucial first step is to reverse, with absolute scientific and logical confidence, today's general acceptance of the misconception that "calcification releases CO 2 into the atmosphere". This stridently maintained, but mistaken, interpretation ignores biological chemistry (which is controlled by the organism) in favour of open water chemistry (which is imposed on the organism) and directs humanity's attention away from the only ecosystem on this planet that possesses the physiological capability to remove permanently the excess CO 2 from our atmosphere. Anyone who has ever enjoyed a meal of shellfish knows from personal experience that, at the conclusion of the meal, diners are left with a bowl of discarded shells. Consequently, it doesn't matter which version of the marine chemistry mantra you believe ("calcification is /OR/ is not a CO 2-releasing process"), it doesn't matter that the shellfish spend their lives "exhaling" respiratory CO 2 (we all do that!), it doesn't matter that the boats burn diesel fuel to CO 2 day in-day out, or that shore facilities are not carbon neutral (most, if not all, currently-operating marine facilities are like that). It doesn't matter because the fact is that our consumption of every ton of freshly harvested shellfish leaves behind (on average) half a ton of freshly precipitated limestone in the shells. Most importantly, the shell material is 95% inorganic calcium carbonate which remains sequestered for millions of years (unless someone treats the shells as "food waste" fit only for incineration). There are two other steps we must take. CHANGE the present-day paradigm of aquaculture, which is to cultivate shellfish for food, to cultivating shellfish for their shells (treating the food as a by-product). This change of paradigm places the value of the cultivation exercise on the production of shell and its removal of carbon from the atmosphere. This allows us to take the monetary value of the food that results as a by-product, so that, effectively, the food value is the earned interest on the capital invested in the shell-cultivation exercise. AN ABSOLUTE ESSENTIAL is that production of shell by this New Generation Shellfish Farming (by present-day Old Generation Shellfish Farming too, for that matter) is INCLUDED in CARBON-OFFSETTING PROGRAMS. Those used by the general public to offset the carbon emissions of their transport and other domestic activities, are likely to be attracted by projects to fund shellfish cultivation because for anyone who has enjoyed a shellfish meal it will be self-evident that a lot of shell is left over after the meal. Advertising ['Eat more shellfish. SAVE the atmosphere'] can educate consumers in just a few words of the shells' ability to offer a permanent removal of atmospheric carbon. There is a wide variety of potential projects, ranging from support for developing/expanding local subsistence fisheries in the third world as a means to employ and feed communities in need, through to supplementing the funding of local (to the offsetting customer) aquaculture programmes to enable them to expand their conservation/restoration activities continually for several to many years. Primary CO 2 emitter industries might be encouraged to sponsor a different kind of help to balance their carbon footprints by funding the larger scale infrastructural activities which are anticipated, which include industrial scale installations offshore and ocean-going factory ships. The high-energy industries that most need to compensate their heavy carbon footprints have all the necessary skills and experience to take such large-scale efforts forward.Central governments should be persuaded and encouraged to fund shellfish cultivation to sequester atmospheric carbon as a contribution to their carbon neutrality goals. As well as making significant financial input to the projects most appropriate to them, their responsibilities could include political, legal and administrative facilitation of the anticipated projects [1-4]. CITATION = Moore, D. (2023). A Shellfish Manifesto for Sequestering Atmospheric Carbon in Quantity. Environmental Sciences and Ecology: Current Research, 4: 1083. Download open access PDF from this URL: https://www.corpuspublishers.com/assets/articles/esecr-v4--23-1083.pdf.
... In several recent publications we have advocated that shellfish farmers should greatly expand their production specifically to generate more shell to sequester atmospheric carbon [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10]. Our core conviction is that humankind must look to the oceans for the solution to the excess CO2 in the atmosphere that drives climate change, and that marine calcifiers (coccolithophores, Foraminifera, Mollusca, Crustacea, Anthozoa, Echinodermata and some annelids) are the tools that will provide that solution. ...
... Continuing the audit analogy, an audit trail (a sequential record of the history and details around an event) finds intact shellfish shells through the whole of early human evolution [4,5], and www.videleaf.com into the deeper history of planet Earth as illustrated by the global reorganisations of carbonate accumulations from the Cretaceous to the Miocene (between 125 and 9 million years ago) [90][91][92]. ...
... In several recent publications we have advocated that shellfish farmers should greatly expand their production specifically to generate more shell to sequester atmospheric carbon [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10]. Our core conviction is that humankind must look to the oceans for the solution to the excess CO 2 in the atmosphere that drives climate change, and that marine calcifiers (coccolithophores, Foraminifera, Mollusca, Crustacea, Anthozoa, Echinodermata *Correspondence to: David Moore, ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3968-0587, ...
... Continuing the audit analogy, an audit trail (a sequential record of the history and details around an event) finds intact shellfish shells through the whole of early human evolution [4,5], and into the deeper history of planet Earth as illustrated by the global reorganisations of carbonate accumulations from the Cretaceous to the Miocene (between 125 and 9 million years ago) [90][91][92]. ...
Citation: Moore D, Heilweck M, Fears WB, et al. Potential of ocean calcifiers to sequester atmospheric carbon in quantity and even reverse climate change. J Fish Res. 2023;7(1):132. NOTE THE DOI IS STILL UNREGISTERED. USE THIS URL TO VIEW ORIGINAL JOURNAL: Journal URL: https://tinyurl.com/5am8tdhu.
Today's marine calcifiers (coccolithophore algae, Foraminifera [protists], Mollusca, Crustacea, Anthozoa [corals], Echinodermata and some annelids) convert atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2) into the solid calcium carbonate (CaCO 3) shells which are left when they die. These organisms could be the biotechnological carbon capture and storage mechanism to control climate change. Two criticisms of this are: (i) ocean acidification has allegedly been shown to cause reduced shell formation in calcifiers; (ii) the calcification reaction that forms CaCO 3 crystals is alleged to return CO 2 to the atmosphere. Here, we review evidence about such criticisms and find reasons to doubt both. Experiments showing ocean acidification is damaging to calcifiers have all used experimental pH levels that are not projected to be reached in the oceans until the next century or later; today's oceans are alkaline. Claiming precipitation of CaCO 3 by calcification as net source of atmospheric CO 2 might be true in open water environments in equilibrium with the atmosphere. Living calcifiers do not carry out the calcification reaction in such environments. Life's chemistry is specifically isolated from open water; taking place on enzymatic polypeptide surfaces, within organelles with ion-selective phospholipid membranes, contained in a cell enclosed by phospholipid bilayer membranes. Ignoring what is known about the biology, physiology, and molecular biology of living calcifiers leads to erroneous conclusions and deficient advice about the potential for calcifier biotechnology to contribute to atmosphere remediation. We conclude that the world's aquaculture industries already operate the biotechnology that, with massive and immediate global expansion, can sustainably control atmospheric CO 2 levels at reasonable cost. Abstract Potential of ocean calcifiers to sequester atmospheric carbon in quantity and even reverse climate change.
... Climate change predicted as early as 1981 by Hansen et al. [1] primarily due to the consistently increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration is forcing us to decarbonise our actions today [2][3][4]. The decarbonisation targets for the European Union are laid down in the European Green Deal [5] and call for complete climate neutrality by 2050. ...
Since environmental benefits and supply chain resilience are commonly assumed for circular economy strategies, this study tests this hypothesis in the context of lithium-ion battery recycling and cell manufacturing. Therefore, the use of recyclates from different cathode active materials and from different recycling routes, namely hydrometallurgy and direct recycling, in a subsequent cell production is modelled with the recyclate quotas prescribed by the amended European Battery Regulation and analysed using life cycle assessment methodology. This study concludes that both, negative and positive environmental impacts can be achieved by the usage of recyclates, depended on the cell technology and the recycling process chosen. Newly constructed lithium iron phosphate (LFP) cells using a share of 11.3% of recyclates, which are obtained from LFP cells by a hydrometallurgical process, achieve a deterioration in the ecology by 7.5% for the global warming potential (GWP) compared to LFP cells without any recyclate share at all. For the same recyclate quota scenario, hydrometallurgical recyclates from lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide cells (NMC), on the other hand, achieve savings in GWP of up to 1.2%. Recyclates from direct recycling achieve savings in GWP for LPF and NMC of a maximum of 6.3% and 12.3%, by using a recyclate share of 20%. It can be seen that circular economy can raise large savings potentials ecologically, but can also have a contrary effect if not properly applied.
... These aspects are provided by the "soft" NB-NETs. As described elsewhere (Moore et al., 2021a), these NB-NETs are of low to medium expense (US$100 t −1 CO 2 or less) and offer ample capacity for safe scale-up from current levels of operation. Griscom et al. (2017) provide a succinct overview of natural climate solutions (NCSs), which encompass "soft" carbon sequestration potential. ...
... The authors like trees (and other plants) and we are in favor of planting more of them, but they should be planted for their intrinsic ecosystem value, because there are negative aspects to relying on them so heavily as a way to sequester carbon from the atmosphere on the long term basis required for full and lasting benefit (Moore et al., 2021a; and see the next section). Tree planting schemes could make a major contribution to improving our atmosphere, but the rate and scale of their urgent implementation is enormous because "tree numbers have declined to nearly half since the start of human civilization and over 15 billion trees are lost on an annual basis" (Crowther et al., 2015). ...
... • Intact shellfish shells are excavated regularly from the middens associated with coastal communities of early humans, from around 120,000 years ago (Moore et al., 2021a;Moore et al., 2021b;Moore and Heilweck, 2022). • Intact shellfish shells abound in deep-water cores of ancient coastal sediments of hundreds of thousands of years ago. ...
We are all familiar with the episodes in the deep time history of Earth that enabled life to emerge in such abundance. Episodes like the formation of a Moon large enough and near enough to cause tides in the Earth’s waters and rocks, a core of sufficient iron with sufficient angular momentum to generate a protective magnetosphere around Earth, and assumption of a planetary axis angle that generates the ecological variation of our seasonal cycles. The living things that did arise on this planet have been modifying their habitats on Earth since they first appeared. Modifications that include the greening of Earth by photosynthetic organisms, which turned a predominantly reducing atmosphere into an oxidising one, the consequent precipitation of iron oxides into iron ore strata, and the formation of huge deposits of limestone by calcifying organisms. The episodes on which we wish to concentrate are 1) the frequent involvement of marine calcifiers (coccolithophores, foraminifera, molluscs, crustacea, corals, echinoderms), that have been described as ecosystem engineers modifying habitats in a generally positive way for other organisms, and 2) the frequent involvement of humans in changing the Earth’s biosphere in a generally negative way for other organisms. The fossil record shows that ancestral marine calcifiers had the physiology to cope with both acidified oceans and great excesses of atmospheric CO2 periodically throughout the past 500 million years, creating vast remains of shells as limestone strata in the process. So, our core belief is that humankind must look to the oceans for a solution to present-day climate change. The marine calcifiers of this planet have a track record of decisively modifying both oceans and atmospheres but take millions of years to do it. On the other hand, humanity works fast; in just a few thousand years we have driven scores of animals and plants to extinction, and in just a few hundred years we have so drastically modified our atmosphere that, arguably, we stand on the verge of extinction ourselves. Of all Earth’s ecosystems, those built around biological calcifiers, which all convert organic carbon into inorganic limestone, are the only ones that offer the prospect of permanent net removal of CO2 from our atmosphere. These are the carbon-removal biotechnologies we should be seeking to exploit.
... That's a leg-679 acy worth cultivating. 681 Continuing the audit analogy, an audit trail (a sequential record of the history and 682 details around an event) finds intact shellfish shells through the whole of early human 683 evolution [4,5], and into the deeper history of planet Earth as illustrated by the global 684 reorganisations of carbonate accumulations from the Cretaceous to the Miocene (between 685 125 and 9 million years ago) [89][90][91]. 686 Sedimentary limestone rocks derive all their CaCO3 from the biological activities of 687 bryozoa, corals, crinoids, microscopic algae, Foraminifera in the plankton and/or benthos 688 of the day, as well as shellfish shells. ...
Today’s marine calcifiers (coccolithophore algae, Foraminifera [protists], Mollusca, Crustacea, Anthozoa [corals], Echinodermata) remove carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) from the atmosphere, converting it into solid calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ) which is stable for geological periods of time. These organisms could serve as a biotechnological carbon capture and storage mechanism to control climate change. Two criticisms made about this are: (i) ocean acidification has allegedly been shown to cause reduced shell formation in calcifiers; (ii) the calcification reaction that precipitates CaCO 3 crystals into the shells is alleged to return CO 2 to the atmosphere. In this review we assess the evidence concerning such criticisms and find reasons to doubt both. Experiments showing that ocean acidification is damaging to calcifiers have all used experimental pH levels that are not projected to be reached in the oceans until the next century or later; today’s oceans, despite recent changes, are alkaline in pH. Claiming precipitation of CaCO 3 during calcification as a net source of CO 2 to the atmosphere is an oversimplification of ocean chemistry that is true only in open water environments. Living calcifiers do not carry out the calcification reaction in an open water environment in equilibrium with the atmosphere. The chemistry that we know as life takes place on the surfaces of enzymatic polypeptides, within organelles that have phospholipid membranes, contained in a cell enclosed within another phospholipid bilayer membrane specifically to isolate the chemistry of life from the open water environment. Ignoring what is known about the biology, physiology, and molecular cell biology of living organisms, calcifiers of all types especially, leads to erroneous conclusions and deficient advice about the potential for calcifier biotechnology to contribute to atmosphere remediation. Net removal of CO 2 from the atmosphere by calcifiers is only achieved by the CaCO 3 stored in the shell, coccoliths, or foram tests that are left when they die. To capitalise on this requires a change in paradigm towards cultivating calcifiers for their CaCO 3 rather than their meat or other products. We conclude that the world’s aquaculture industries already operate the biotechnology that, with massive and immediate global expansion, can contribute to sustainably controlling atmospheric CO 2 levels at reasonable cost and with several positive benefits in addition to carbon sequestration.
