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European production of continental products EU (15) (millions of euros, current prices). Source: own elaboration based on data obtained from EUROSTAT.
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The evolution of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) has been conditioned by a number of factors. Among them is the so-called external aspect of the CAP on which this work focuses, being the main objective to analyze the relationship between the evolution of the CAP and the negotiations leading to the liberalization of international agricultural t...
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![Figure 1. Measuring gross exports. Source: [71].](profile/Anna-Budzynska-2/publication/358178054/figure/fig1/AS:1121892140363777@1644491338595/Measuring-gross-exports-Source-71_Q320.jpg)
The role of global value-added chains is growing in international trade. The development gap between highly developed economies and developing countries means that the only products with which less developed economies can compete on the international arena are agricultural products. Moreover, integration into global value-added chains is an importa...
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... Los países de ese momento miembros del G8 eran los principales impulsores para lanzar nuevas Rondas, como las de Kennedy y Tokio, con el objetivo de la apertura de mercados, de incrementar las exportaciones y de aumentar el empleo con el apoyo de Estados Unidos. Por otro lado, la Comunidad Económica Europea no se encontraba abierta a estos lanzamientos debido a que trabajaba en buscar soluciones respecto a la PAC y a los desequilibrios que conllevaba la reforma de McSharry, tal como lo estudian Castellano-Álvarez et al. (2021). ...
Tras la creación de la Organización Mundial del Comercio (OMC o WTO), la incorporación del Acuerdo General sobre Aranceles Aduaneros y Comercio (GATT) en el que se incluye el Acuerdo de Agricultura ha generado cambios en el comercio de productos agrícolas. Este artículo aporta una revisión de la literatura sobre la evolución de las negociaciones en las Conferencias Ministeriales partiendo del Acuerdo de Agricultura y los compromisos que han ido adquiriendo los miembros. Como resultado del estudio se vislumbra un bloqueo en las negociaciones debido a los intereses de distintos países que participan activamente en las negociaciones y que, hasta la Ronda de Uruguay su participación en el GATT era relativamente pasiva.
... The liberalization of international agricultural trade and the adherence to the associated commitments by developed nations [17,18] pose a significant challenge to the rural landscapes of these countries, where agriculture continues to hold paramount importance. This challenge echoes the rationale behind the initiation of the Leader Community Initiative in the early 1990s [19,20]. ...
This Special Issue delves into the challenges and threats associated with rural economic diversification [...]
... Since then, the European commitment to rural economic diversification has been a constant in the implementation of EU policies. The origins of this European interest in rural areas lie in the significant internal and external imbalances in the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) [2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9]. This made CAP reform a real priority. ...
One of the main objectives of rural development programs is the economic diversification of rural areas. In the context of the European Union, the application of the Leader Initiative (referred to today as the Leader Approach) is perhaps the best example of this type of policy. Based on the case study methodology, the objective of this work is to analyze the viability of the projects promoted by this type of program. A long-term scenario is taken as a reference, and this is precisely one of the main methodological innovations of this research in relation to most of the analyses focused on the impacts of rural development programs. The results of the research show (a) an orientation of the development strategy towards the promotion of rural tourism and (b) differences in the survival of the projects according to the type of productive measure under which they have been implemented: agricultural valorization and marketing projects offer better results than those promoting rural tourism or the promotion of SMEs and crafts and services. These results call into question the notable concentration of investment in projects aimed at creating tourist accommodation.
... Examining the process of policy change under the lens of historical institutionalism and neo-institutionalism, we discuss the role played by the gradual introduction of measures aimed at promoting measurable environmental criteria and climatic targets. Additionally, our study unravels the EU's commitment to climate change and sustainable development challenges, such as the Agreements on Agriculture (AoA) stated at the Uruguay Round (1986)(1987)(1988)(1989)(1990)(1991)(1992)(1993)(1994) [13,14] and the UN-Paris Agreement in 2015 [12,15], and how conditionality is being used to link funding to results [16]. These insights into the significance and implications of the CAP's shift towards sustainability offer valuable recommendations for future policy developments, emphasizing the need to balance environmental concerns with the needs of farmers and other stakeholders in line with the international context in which European agriculture operates. ...
... Other evolutions include the recognition of agriculture's vulnerability to climate change due to the direct impact of weather on farming activities and its contribution to greenhouse gas emissions. Moreover, the EU's international commitments to climate change and sustainable development challenges, such as the AoA [13,14] and the 2015 UN Paris Agreement [12,15], played a significant role in gradually including "green" measures in several CAP reforms since 1992 [169,170]. ...
Amidst growing concerns about the impact of agriculture on the environment, the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) has been overhauled to prioritize sustainable rural development in European agriculture. Based on this line of thought, the present contribution delves into the details of the CAP's shift, focusing on the main environmental concerns faced in the policy-making framework. Grounded in a political science perspective, the current study looks at how environmental and climate change concerns were gradually elevated inside the CAP's policy-making framework and how they helped create the "green architecture" for European agriculture. Examining the process of policy change under the lens of historical institutionalism and neo-institutionalism within the multilevel governance framework of the European Union (EU), the key role played by the gradual introduction of measures aimed at promoting measurable environmental criteria and climatic targets is highlighted. For instance, measures aimed at preserving carbon-rich soils and enhancing water resources can have positive impacts on the environment. However, these measures were also recognized to increase the cost of production for the European farmers, who faced serious difficulties in adjusting to the new framework. Within this context, this research delves into the roles played by two additional fundamental entities: the consumer and environmental activism. Additionally, the study underscores the EU's commitment to addressing climate change and sustainable development challenges and how conditionality is being used to link funding to results. Upon analyzing the CAP's shift, the reflection of a more flexible and rational approach is argued to be embodied by the new policy architecture. By incorporating both CAP pillars, encouraging collaboration with compatible policies, and allowing for greater adaptability in response to the unique circumstances and objectives of each member state, the CAP is taking significant steps towards sustainability and climate action. These insights into the significance and implications of the CAP's shift towards sustainability offer valuable recommendations for future policy developments, emphasizing the need to balance environmental concerns with the needs of farmers and other stakeholders.
... Export serves as a strategic growth option to (1) escape stagnating domestic markets and (2) diversify risks by spreading sales over several different destinations [1,2]. Exports are particularly relevant for agricultural goods [3]. Agricultural products account for more than one-fifth of world trade [4], especially since global wine trade has developed dynamically [5][6][7][8][9][10]. ...
With more than 40% of produced wine crossing borders, wine represents a truly global beverage. Wine export serves as a sales lever, especially for producers where home wine consumption diminishes but the global wine business is highly competitive. The literature tells that in competitive market innovation, customer centrism, and increasing sustainability are key. Wine export offerings need to meet the customer's desires in the targeted foreign destinations. German wine providers have to catch-up in regard to destination-specific preferences so they can offer adaptation or suffer a competitive disadvantage in sustainability positioning. The main aims of this study were to validate the importance of sustainability in wine import and to explore destination-specific preferences and potential sustainable offer designs on the basis of new, fungus-resistant grape (FRG) wines by an explorative, qualitative approach. Evaluating the key export markets for German wine, the study delved into a performance assessment on how German providers who are marked by small-scale structures and fragmentation are positioned in regard to the primary purchasing factors in global wine competition, in regard to sustainability, and how to overcome performance gaps by tailoring destination-specific export offerings. In order to close a lack of research on destination-oriented sustainable wine offer design and to provide orientation for practitioners, an empirical study tested wine export offerings in the form of four concepts with a strong emphasis on sustainability and FRGs. More than 100 wine experts in the five key countries for German wine exports served to explore country preferences for offer elements and perceived performance of German wine producers. The interviews revealed (a) that sustainability is a must for wine export sales; (b) that German wine producers limp in sustainability reputation; (c) the existence of country-specific preferences allowing exporters to tailor their offerings to the specific needs in their ambition to increase export performance; (d) that German wine producers can potentially claim sustainability on the basis of a fitting concept; (e) FRGs are potentially suited to reposition innovatively and sustainably; (f) a playful exploitation of stereotypes for German suppliers is risky; (g) that an offer concept on sustainability and "made in Germany" characteristics (design, technology, and reliability) is highly regarded potentially allowing to escape price cutting in their key export destinations.
... In their work on the regulation of international agricultural trade and its implications for the CAP, Castellano-Álvarez et al. (2021) examined the interrelationship between the two issues. Based on the conclusions obtained, this research aims to broaden the scope of this analysis, focusing on the consequences that the negotiations that took place during the Uruguay and Doha Rounds had for the four Latin American countries that actively participated in both forums. ...
... The methodological approach in this research takes as a reference that used by Castellano-Álvarez et al. (2021) in their analysis of the influence of the CAP reform process on the regulation of international agricultural trade. The aforementioned authors indicated that, in order to analyse the effects of the liberalisation of agricultural trade, it was necessary to take as a reference point those products that were most sensitive to the growing opening up of trade; in other words, those that benefited most from the subsidy and protection systems of developed countries. ...
... This section compares the evolution of agricultural foreign trade in Latin American countries with the trend followed by European foreign trade (a paradigmatic example of the logic used by developed countries in agricultural stimulus policies). With respect to European evolution, this research starts from the results obtained by Castellano-Álvarez et al. (2021) in their analysis of the implications that the regulation of international agricultural trade has on CAP reforms. progressed and CAP reforms were implemented in the 2000s. ...
This article describes the evolution of the regulation of agricultural trade and analyses key aspects of the negotiations of the Uruguay and Doha Rounds, in which the least developed countries managed to make the final outcome of the negotiations conditional on progress in the liberalisation of agricultural trade. Four Latin American countries (Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Uruguay) participated in the lobbying groups set up in both Rounds with the aim of defending their interests against the agricultural and protectionist policies of developed countries. Using specialised databases on international trade, this paper describes the consequences of these negotiations for the foreign agricultural trade of the countries that actively participated in them, with particular reference to the evolution of European and Latin American trade balances. The results of the research show how Latin American countries have become one of the world’s main exporters of oilseeds and sugar, accounting for a third and a quarter of world exports, respectively. In contrast to the deterioration of the European trade balance, during the period analysed the aggregate trade surplus of Latin American countries increased from USD 4458.75 to 49,656.52 million.
One of the controversial issues in the trade negotiations carried out with the World Trade Organization deals with agricultural supports related to production, which is claimed to disrupt the market system by creating an imbalance in supply and demand in the domestic market and to cause world trade contraction. In this context, the aim of this study is to examine the production effect of the deficiency payments and land-based direct supports widely used in Turkey. The study conducts a panel autoregressive distributed lag analysis for 11 selected agricultural products (wheat, corn, sunflower, seed cotton, paddy, soybean, canola, safflower, tea, dried beans, and olives) for the 2002-2019 period. The findings from the study are as follows: i) Increases in deficiency payments and land-based direct supports increase short and long run production. However, land-based direct supports have less of an effect on production. ii) While increases in input prices have a negative short run effect on production, the long run effect is the opposite. iii) Agricultural product price is not an important indicator for producers. This finding can be explained by the fact that farmers accept agricultural supports as a complement to the price variable in their production decisions. iv) Increases in the minimum wage added to the model based on Turkey's structural characteristics have a negative long run impact on production. v) No statistically significant relationship exists between the number of tractors used to represent agricultural mechanization and the amount of production.
The trade of agricultural products plays an essential role in agricultural development. Agricultural trade is more complicated and diversified than other industrial products, influenced by product characteristics for perishable. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is one of the most important markets for China’s agricultural exports. This study aimed to analyze the impact of trade facilitation indicators on China’s agricultural exports to ASEAN countries. A gravity model was adopted by taking the volume of Chinese agricultural exports to ASEAN countries from 2006–2020 as the dependent variable. Indicators such as economic freedom (EF), trade across borders (TAB), and infrastructure quality (Infra) were introduced that were representing trade facilitation as the core independent variable. Also, an empirical analysis was carried out using a mixed regression model. The results show that the three proxy indicators of trade facilitation had a significantly positive impact on the scale of China’s agricultural exports to the ASEAN market. The results could play a guiding role in strengthening the cooperation between China and the ASEAN regarding trade facilitation and expansion of the scale of agricultural trade.
