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Energy Density of Compressed Air in Isothermal Conditions (The energy density is a function of the maximum P max and minimum P min storage pressures, and the recovery efficiency η. Dotted and continuous lines represent 50 and 100%
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The increasing energy demand, the mismatch between generation and load, and the growing use of renewable energy accentuate
the need for energy storage. In this context, energy geo-storage provides various alternatives, the use of which depends on
the quality of surplus energy. In terms of power and energy capacity, large mechanical energy storage s...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... instance, the energy density in air compressed from P min = 4 MPa to P max =7 MPa is e V = 4 MJ/m 3 . The energy density of an isothermal compressed air system is plotted versus the maximum air pressure for two efficiency values in Fig. 2. Moreover, the energy density of the existing compressed air energy storage power plants is shown in the range of working ...
Context 2
... appropriate underground reservoir requires large dimensions (e.g., the generation of 200 MW in 8 hours requires a 16 ha × 100 m reservoir), the presence of a confined aquifer, an impermeable cap rock, compatible underground water regime, high porosity, and high permeability of the rock formation (Allen et al., 1983). A new compressed air energy storage power plant is under development in a sandstone aquifer with these characteristics in Iowa, U.S. (Fortner, 2008). Fast, cyclic, multidirectional fluid flow, mixed fluid composition, and cyclic loading take place in the reservoir during operation. ...
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The present study concerns the development of a micro-CAES system for thermal and electrical energy storage for residential and non-residential users (shelter/remote users including), in order to reduce energy costs and increase the reliability of energy supply from renewable sources. The micro-CAES system allows you to store the electricity genera...
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Citations
... To overcome the PHS development dilemma, researchers have innovatively proposed modern pumped storage topologies that offer greater flexibility in site selection. Examples include off-river PHS (not continuously connected to naturally flowing water features) [11], seawater PHS [12], retrofitting existing hydropower reservoirs [13], retrofitting PHS on open pit mines [14], geomechanical PHS [15], among others. Amongst these alternatives, off-river PHS overcomes the limitations and exhibits higher potential for installation and technological readiness levels [16]. ...
... To simplify the calculation, the isothermal operation of CAES is assumed in this analysis. Then, the energy storage capacity (E v , MJ) of the salt cavern can be assessed as follows [32]: ...
The concept of small- or medium-scale CAES using salt domes at a depth shallower than 500 m and in the capacity of 10-100 MW was recently suggested to address a burden associated with geologic exploration and high investment cost. In this study, we employed an analytical approach to calculate the hoop and radial stresses at the crown and sidewall of the storage cavity under the given cavity depth (h), the dimension of the cavity (W/H), the ratio of horizontal-to-vertical geologic stresses (K), and the internal air pressure (Pin). A good match of the hoop and radial stresses were observed for all tested parameters. The analysis of stress paths implies that the mechanical stability at the crown of the storage cavity could be a decisive factor for allowable storage pressure ranges. The allowable maximum storage pressure (Pmaxallow) can be determined at the moment when the stress path touches the tensile failure criterion, while the allowable minimum storage pressure (Pminallow) needs to be set to maintain stress paths below the shear failure envelope. A higher K and W/H values are advantageous for securing higher storage pressure, and the energy storage capacities are estimated between 1 and 10 MJ/m³ from this study.
... The shakedown theory lends itself particularly useful to stability analyses of underground energy storage caverns under cyclic loads. Pasten and Santamarina (2011) perceived that the long-term performance of underground energy storage systems depends on the cyclic behaviour of the geo-materials, which can be described using the shakedown theory. The numerical simulations of Perazzelli and Anagnostou (2016) showed that the responses of two CAES systems were distinct from each other due to different rock strengths, which could also be explained using the shakedown theory. ...
In this paper, a shakedown analysis is conducted for both cylindrical and spherical cavities in cohesive-frictional materials subjected to cyclic internal pressures. Based on Melan’s lower-bound shakedown theorem, theoretical shakedown conditions for a two-layered cavity system are developed using the stress and strain solutions obtained from cavity expansion and contraction analyses. The shakedown limits are investigated in relation to the dimensions of the two-layered cavity system and the elastic/plastic material parameters. Numerical validation is conducted through a comparison of the stress path of the critical element and the failure lines of the materials. In addition, closed-form solutions for special cases, namely, the analytical shakedown conditions of cavities in an unbound cohesive-frictional material and in a bound material with different boundary conditions, are explicitly expressed. Finally, the shakedown solutions are applied to solve the thickness design problem of underground compressed air energy storage in lined and unlined caverns.
... data into the CAES system design and performance modeling [56,[63][64][65]. Geomechanical aspect of CAES systems has also been covered in the literature [66][67][68][69][70][71]. Moreover, Ontario electricity system and potential role and opportunities for development and operation of energy storage and CAES within Canada has been the subject of few studies [32,39,44,[72][73][74][75][76][77][78]. ...
As the next generation of compressed air energy storage systems are being developed and the technology is gaining momentum, designing the right system is essential for its successful adaptation in the electricity market. This research studies the impact of performance requirements on the design and operation of any potential adiabatic compressed air energy storage system, using one full year worth of real operating data of the Ontario grid for analysis. The objective is to introduce a new approach to designing compressed air energy storage systems based on specific grid requirements. The adiabatic compressed air energy storage system thermo-mechanical requirements under real operating conditions are identified using a model-based approach. It is shown that using an adiabatic compressed air energy storage system with one-tenth of the size commonly assumed in the literature, will satisfy the Ontario grid requirements. Such a system will require charge and discharge durations of less than two hours. In addition to understanding sizing and performance requirements, this analytical approach provides a valuable insight into long-term trends required for optimum operational planning and scheduling.
... Furthermore, electrification of the transportation system could significantly speed up this growth rate. Therefore, electrical grid systems have to constantly add new generation capacity, while constrained by limited resources [10,57]. ...
Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) systems, if designed right, can provide a range of high-value grid services that are required for stable operation of the electrical grid. In this paper, a new design approach for customized CAES based on user-centered design (UCD) methodology is developed. To this end, a study of the electrical grid infrastructure and challenges, with a focus on Ontario (Canada) is presented. Afterward, a system approach methodology called CAES-by-Design is developed that incorporates the impact of grid profiles. Hourly load profiles of the Ontario grid are analyzed. Using a thermodynamic model, it is shown how the performance requirements of an adiabatic CAES (A-CAES) system, in terms of capacity, charge and discharge rates and duration are affected by the grid demand and supply profile. For example, it is observed that a compressor capacity of 13% of maximum excess energy and a turbine capacity of 10% of maximum required energy would be sufficient to capture more than 50% of the charging and discharging opportunities. Furthermore, the impact of charging and discharging cycle dynamics on the sizing and operating characteristics of thermal energy storage (TES) system is discussed. Results of this analysis suggest that a comprehensive assessment tool can be developed based on the presented methodology.
... At night, when energy consumption is lower, PHES pump back the water stored in the lower reservoir to the upper reservoir, establishing a sort of closed loop, which continually reuses the water [5]. Figure (1) shows the operational scheme of a PHES. Figure 1 -Operational scheme of a PHES [4] As reported by Pasten and Santamarina [6], the bigger level difference between the two reservoirs and the bigger flow, the more energy will be produced. Reservoir planning is the most critical element of a reversible plant, and its construction can be by two forms, according to Schreiber (1978) [7]. ...
... The turbines output power varies between 10 and 500 MW, not requiring high levels of water quality, can be operated even at sea [9]. The PHES' efficiency can reach from 70 to 85% [6]. Some PHES can pass from pumping stage to the maximum power generation in just 2 minutes, and the standby for maximum load in just 12 seconds. ...
The expansion of renewable energy sources, encouraged by the growing concern for the environment and for combating global warming effects, has raised the issue of energy storage to regulate the intermittent characteristic of clean sources. In this way, Pumped hydroelectric energy storage systems (PHES) emerge as the oldest storage technology on the planet, presenting high technological maturity, low environmental impacts and high efficiency. A PHES bibliographical review is proposed in the present article, explaining their challenges and perspectives within the Brazilian energy scenario. The presence of reversible plants already adds over 127 GW of installed power worldwide, with particular reference to countries such as Japan and USA. In Brazil, this type of enterprise still faces many barriers. However, the government has already made efforts to insert this technology in the energy market, establishing criteria, prospecting possible locations and proposing regulatory measures for tariff regulation.
... The design of geo-structures needs to consider the influence of repetitive loads on long-term performance, serviceability and safety. For example, this applies to energy-related geosystems such as pumped hydro-storage, monopile-supported wind turbines, compressed air energy storage and energy piles (Peng et al., 2006;Andersen, 2009;Pasten & Santamarina, 2011;Sánchez et al., 2014;Loria et al., 2015). The number of mechanical loading cycles in these systems can be particularly high: monopilesupported wind turbines experience more than N = 10 7 cycles during a typical design life (Achmus et al., 2009;Li et al., 2015), while tidal cycles exceed N = 10 4 in a 30 year design life. ...
Geotechnical structures often experience a large number of repetitive loading cycles. This research examines the quasi-static mechanical response of sands subjected to repetitive loads under zero-lateral-strain boundary conditions. The experimental study uses an automatic repetitive loading frame operated with pneumatic pistons. Both vertical deformation and shear wave velocity are continuously monitored during 10 000 repetitive loading cycles. The void ratio evolves towards the terminal void ratio eT as the number of load cycles increases. The terminal void ratio eT is a function of the initial void ratio e0 and the stress amplitude ratio Δσ/σ0. The number of cycles N* required to reach half of the final volume contraction ranges from N*→1 for densely packed sands (e0→emin) to N→10³ for loosely packed sands (e0→emax). As the soil approaches terminal density at a large number of cycles, peak-to-peak strains are dominated by elastic deformations, and the minute plastic strains that remain in every cycle reflect local and sequential contact events. The shear wave velocity increases during cyclic loading with data suggesting a gradual increase in the coefficient of earth pressure K0 during repetitive loading. Changes in shear wave velocity track the evolution of the constrained modulus M; in fact, the constrained modulus can be estimated from the shear wave velocity to compute soil deformation in a given cycle. A simple procedure is suggested to estimate the potential settlement a layer may experience when subjected to repetitive mechanical loads.
... This rate is common in the design of a hydro electricity generation plant when the exact efficiency of the hydro turbines and the distribution system are not yet known prior to the system being commissioned to permit measurement [70]. Some loss of power is typical in any hydro system due to evaporation, mechanical component switching delays and physical resistance [71,72]. ...
Global demand for clean renewable electricity is increasing. Although hydroelectricity is clean and
renewable, storing excess energy during non-peak times in batteries usually causes negative impacts to
the environment and may trigger legal or land use issues. Additionally, voltaic-based batteries are
prohibitively expensive for storing the amount of electricity even for a small village. Actually it is a lot
cheaper and cleaner to store electricity in water. This study explores how to do that. It features a unique
pragmatic research ideology that included a literature review, comparative field research, data collection
from the site, along with parametric statistical techniques. Relevant best-practices were cited from the
literature and from comparative field research projects. A novel concept was the use of a land fault
between lakes in a large park preserve. A scalable decision making model was developed for generating
and storing clean renewable energy. The results should generalize widely to renewable energy storage
practitioners, climate conservation activists, government policy makers and to other researchers around
the world.
... Efficiency of CAES varies depending on the heat management and the scale, but many recent studies aim to yield at least 70% cycle efficiency (Budt et al. 2016). Large-scale CAES operations, such as operating CAES (using salt caverns in Huntorf, Germany and McIntosh, Alabama) and CAES under plan (limestone mine in Ohio and Iowa, brine cavern in West Texas and Germany), have geological limitations for practical usage (Cheung 2014;Pasten and Santamarina 2011). In contrast, small-and micro-scale CAES operations do not need a big storage volume, and thus are free from such limitations. ...
... Next, we would like to show how much energy storage capacity the CAES piles can have. The required volume (V) a storage system is a function of the stored energy density e either the stored energy E or the delivered power (P) and the time of supply (s) as follows (Pasten and Santamarina 2011): ...
Compressed air energy storage (CAES), in which surplus energy is utilized for compressing ambient air that can be released later to provide necessary energy, is being actively pursued in a last decade. This technology has a potential to strengthen the efficiency of renewable energy generation, such as solar and wind power. In addition to the large-scale energy storages, CAES can be operated at a small-scale to support facilities such as residential buildings. In this case, closed-ended steel piles can serve to provide the space where pressurized air is stored during off-peak periods, which leads to an idea of small-scale CAES pile. To continue pursuing the idea of using pile foundation system as an energy storage vessel, we need to examine long-term stability of CAES pile. In this pilot study, we investigate a finite element model of an axisymmetric CAES pile that is subject to the internal uniform pressurization while supporting a constant structural load. Long-term stability of the CAES pile is assessed from the first 10 pressurization-depressurization cycles at the various initial dead load conditions. Elasto-perfectly-plastic constitutive law is employed at the pile-soil interface for simplicity. We are able to observe that vertical displacement of the CAES pile accumulates with negligible radial deformation as the number of pressure cycle increases.
... The study of repetitive loads has been advanced in the context of pavements, railroads, runways, earthquakes, and machine foundations (early studies by D' Appolonia et al. 1969;Silver and Seed 1971;Barksdale 1972;Youd, 1972;Brown 1974Brown , 1996Monismith et al. 1975;Lentz and Baladi 1980;Lentz and Baladi 1981;Diyaljee and Raymond 1982; and more recently Li and Selig 1996;Chai and Miura 2002;Abdelkrim et al. 2003;Suiker and de Borst 2003;Ishikawa et al. 2011). Renewed attention is driven by the long-term response of energy-related geostructures, such as the foundations of wind turbines, compressed air energy storage, and energy piles (Yeo et al. 1994;Niemunis et al. 2005;Laloui et al. 2006; Morgan and Ntambakwa 2008;Achmus et al. 2009;Pasten and Santamarina 2011;Pasten et al. 2014;Sánchez et al. 2014). Indeed, published data show that geomaterials may experience significant strains as they undergo "mechanical cycles" (Luong 1980;Sawicki, 1994;Sawicki and Swidzinski 1995;Wichtmann et al. 2005Wichtmann et al. , 2010b, "thermal cycles" (Viklander 1998;Chen et al. 2006), and either "suction or chemical cycles" (Osipov et al. 1987;Pejon and Zuquette 2002;Tripathy and Subba Rao 2009). ...
Geosystems often experience numerous loading cycles. Plastic strain accumulation during repetitive mechanical loads can lead to shear shakedown or continued shear ratcheting; in all cases, volumetric strains diminish as the specimen evolves towards terminal density. Previously suggested models and new functions are identified to fit plastic strain accumulation data. All accumulation models are formulated to capture terminal density (volumetric strain) and either shakedown or ratcheting (shear strain). Repetitive vertical loading tests under zero lateral strain conditions are conducted using three different sands packed at initially low and high densities. Test results show that plastic strain accumulation for all sands and density conditions can be captured in the same dimensionless plot defined in terms of the initial relative density, terminal density, and ratio between the amplitude of the repetitive load and the initial static load. This observation allows us to advance a simple but robust procedure to estimate the maximum one-dimensional settlement that a foundation could experience if subjected to repetitive loads.
