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Endsley's three-level SA model. Figure made by the authors. 

Endsley's three-level SA model. Figure made by the authors. 

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Article
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The maritime industry is increasingly becoming dependent on dynamic positioning (DP) systems for automated vessel station keeping. This study aimed to reveal characteristics of DP operators’ situation awareness (SA) and decision-making during critical incidents. Information from a total of 24 critical incidents was collected from 13 experienced DP...

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... model (1995) asserts that to achieve level 3 SA (e.g. a sound or high level of SA), the preceding levels of SA must be achieved first. Endsley's (1995) theory of SA proposes that awareness of a situation ". . .form a linear chain from perception to compre- hension to projection" ( Stanton et al. 2010, 29). Hence, there is an underlying assumption of Endsley's theory that SA is formed by a sequential process progressing from percep- tion to comprehension and finally to projection (for a discussion of this, please see e.g. Chiappe, Strybel, and Vu 2012). Using this notion of SA, the sequence portrayed in Figure 1 would be expected. Stanton et al. (2010), however, argue that Endsley's (1995) three-level model is counter-intuitive in that it describes the perception stage as combined with the comprehen- sion stage to achieve level 2 SA but is disintegrated again to enable projection (level 3 SA) to future states of the system. In other words, a DP operator, in Endsley's theoretical frame- work, must first perceive that the vessel is off course and that the weather is severe (level 1 SA), then understand that this means the force of the weather causes the vessel to drift off course by a small margin (level 2 SA). This drift can be noticeable by the aft of the vessel turning and can be seen by looking out the window on the bridge. The understanding of the vessel's drift is then combined with the DP operators' experience of how an adjustment to the thrusters will result in by way of correcting the drift; a degree of change resulting in the aft straightening out. Stanton et al. (2010) question the likelihood that elements of a sit- uation will be assembled and then disassembled to achieve ...

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