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Effect of climate change on different land types, land cover, and water bodies (Sources: Qian et al 2006; Wang et al 2006; Wang G et al 2008; Wang H et al 2008; Wang et al 2009).
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... High-altitude wetlands (HAWs) refer to wetlands such as areas of swamp, marsh, meadow, fen, peatland, or waterbody above 3000 m altitude (Chatterjee et al., 2010). They are characterized by high ultraviolet radiation and low oxygen partial pressure, with plant and animal species having specific tolerances of harsh conditions, including low temperatures (O'Neill, 2019). ...
... This could be attributed to lower water levels in wetlands due to dry summer (i.e., lower precipitation). Moreover, higher summer temperatures lead to high evaporation, reducing water levels (Chatterjee et al., 2010). Comparatively, monsoon precipitation leads to increased water levels and a higher NDWI value in the wetlands. ...
... It comprises 65 ha of Andean vegetation, including azonal high-altitude wetlands and grassland steppes. High-altitude wetlands are meadows located at approximately 3000 m a.s.l. or higher and are surrounded by water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish, or saline (Chatterjee et al. 2010). In 2019, restoration actions were initiated consisting of fencing to exclude pack animal transit and grazing and visitor trail management. ...
Although mountain wetlands in the Andes are of high conservation value and provide key ecosystem services to the human populations that rely on them, they are degraded by human and natural factors like tourism, overgrazing, and climate change. Ecological restoration is an important tool to foster their recovery, but selection of indicators is crucial in order to meet monitoring requirements with limited resources. This study proposes to use a qualitative weighting matrix to select ecological indicators for monitoring restoration. We applied this methodology in a high mountain wetland in Aconcagua Provincial Park in the Arid Andes of Argentina, which is undergoing natural restoration. We surveyed 34 variables corresponding to different taxa (vegetation, vertebrates, and invertebrates) and Horcones lake water properties for the two main plant communities in the park (steppe and wetland) under different disturbance levels (absent‐low, medium, and high). We weighed the variables using 10 criteria related to sensitivity to environmental change, interpretability, management, and feasibility. After weighting, 57% of the variables were selected as indicators. To retain indicators of different taxa and lake properties, we propose two monitoring frequencies: 1–2 years for indicators that can be estimated by people with only general ecological knowledge (e.g. trampling evidence and plant height) and 5 years for indicators requiring higher survey efforts and expert involvement (e.g. fauna abundance and species diversity). We conclude that the subjective weighting procedure could make the selection process easy to replicate.
... With this, many critical ecosystem services are lost, such as water and air purification, biodiversity protection, groundwater recharge, food security, and habitats for many endangered species (Gong et al., 2010). High-altitude wetland (HAW) is defined as "areas of swamp, marsh, meadow, fen, peatland or water located at an altitude above 3000 m, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish, or saline" (Chatterjee et al., 2010). These fragile ecosystems are crucial to providing hill communities and large populations in the plain ecological and economic security, regulating water flow, protecting biodiversity, acting as carbon sinks to mitigate climate changes and delivering essential ecosystem services (Trisal & Kumar, 2008); However, HAWs face threats from catchment degradation, changes in hydrological regimes, human-induced pressures, and climate change impacts, and their vital ecosystem services have not been adequately recognized. ...
High-altitude wetlands (HAW) are essential for the environment as they mitigate climate impacts, facilitate water regulation and groundwater recharge, function as carbon sinks, and promote ecological stability. To protect it from disappearing, it is essential to map and monitor change detection to analyze the extent. However, research on monitoring HAWs remains limited in the world and gets very limited attention. This research uses Geographic Information System (GIS) and remote sensing techniques to analyze the change in Rara wetland extent from 2000 to 2020. We used the Shuttle Radar Topography (SRTM) digital elevation model to generate slope and Topographic Wetness Index (TWI) and Landsat 7 ETM+ images to derive normalized difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Normalizing Difference Water Index (NDWI) and supervised classification for different years. Over the past two decades, 1.25% of the total area of Rara wetland has been lost at an annual rate of 0.997 hectares. It highlights the urgent necessity for conservation action. This study confirms that GIS and remote sensing effectively delineate, map, and assess wetland dynamics, offering essential insights for future conservation policies and strategies.
... High-altitude wetlands (HAWs) refer to wetlands such as areas of swamp, marsh, meadow, fen, peatland, or waterbody above 3000 m altitude (Chatterjee et al., 2010). They are characterized by high ultraviolet radiation and low oxygen partial pressure, with plant and animal species having specific tolerances of harsh conditions, including low temperatures (O'Neill, 2019). ...
... This could be attributed to lower water levels in wetlands due to dry summer (i.e., lower precipitation). Moreover, higher summer temperatures lead to high evaporation, reducing water levels (Chatterjee et al., 2010). Comparatively, monsoon precipitation leads to increased water levels and a higher NDWI value in the wetlands. ...
... Montane wetlands act as sentinels of environmental change (Williamson et al., 2008;Moser et al., 2019) because they experience a significant elevational gradient where isotherms change quickly in space and time, altering seasonal freeze-thaw cycles (Edwards et al., 2008;Löffler et al., 2011), precipitation/runoff (Stewart, 2009), and therefore, vegetation change (Hrach et al., 2022). Montane wetlands also influence downstream hydrology and ecology (Chatterjee et al., 2010) by storing water during wet periods and supplying downstream flows during dry periods (Brinson and Malvárez, 2002). They also provide critical habitats for local biota (Cooper et al., 2017), provide support for food chains (Díaz et al., 2014), filter and store sediment and nutrients from runoff erosion events (Lottig et al., 2013), and store and emit carbon (Hrach et al., 2022). ...
Climatic warming is likely to affect the Canadian Rockies, leading to changes in the land cover (LC) and hydrological cycles. This study estimates climate-induced changes in LC (open water, marsh, wet meadow, and woody/shrub) in the Upper Columbia River Wetlands (UCRW), British Columbia, Canada, from 1984 to 2040. An artificial Neural Network (ANN) approach was used with Landsat series archive data from 1984 to 2022 to project seasonal LC change from 2020s to 2040s. Concurrently, hydroclimatic-based models (using air temperature and precipitation to predict river discharge at the UCRW, 1984-2022) were developed (average Nash Sutcliffe: training 0.75 and validation of 0.70) to predict (1984-2040) river discharge forced by Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) 4.5 and 8.5. The 1984-2022 regression between river discharge and UCRW open water area was forced by RCP scenario river discharge results, calculating open water area for both scenarios. ANN-predicted LC with a Kappa of 0.85 (average of all seasons) for 2020s reference and projected LC, and 0.82 for reference and projected LC change maps (2000s-2020s). From 2020s to 2040s, the ANN projected a reduction (− 5 %) of open water areas during late summer (August to mid-September) in the UCRW, consistent with RCP 4.5 forecasts. The peak of the open water area in the UCRW is projected to shift from summer (late-May to July) BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). to spring (April to mid-May) in both RCP scenarios. The projected changing hydrological conditions reduced the marsh area (− 1 % to − 12 %) and increased the wet meadow (+1 % to +4 %) mostly in the summer and late summer. Meanwhile, woody and shrubby vegetation on the floodplain increased (3 % to 5 %), indicating that the floodplain is projected to dry out.
... Because they are located in headwaters, high-altitude montane palustrine wetlands are important to the ecology and hydrology of the local environment and downstream river systems and streams whose origins are in the mountains (Joyce, Simpson & Casanova 2016;Mitsch, Bernal & Hernandez 2015). These wetlands are also of international importance because they provide water for many transboundary rivers (Chatterjee et al. 2010) such as the Senqu-Orange River and the Limpopo River in southern Africa. Per unit area, wetland ecosystems provide services that are typically higher than those of terrestrial ecosystems, including forests (CBD Secretariat 2015; Ramsar Convention on Wetlands 2018). ...
... The amount of soil carbon is higher in the BNR wetlands (x̄ = 10.87%, but up to 27.16%) than in Letseng-la-Letsie (x̄ = 4.00%), a wetland that is also in the Maloti-Drakensberg Mountains but at a lower altitude and subjected to open access communal utilisation (livestock grazing and trampling) (Kahlolo et al. 2021). This substantial difference is possibly because of peat accumulation resulting from anoxia caused by waterlogging, coupled with low temperatures in BNR, that reduce decomposition rates and thus enhance organic matter accumulation (Chatterjee et al. 2010;Gopal 2016). These wetlands have optimal conditions enabling them to sequester and store carbon, which is a critical ecosystem service for stabilising climate (Mitsch & Gosselink 2015). ...
Bokong Nature Reserve (BNR) forms part of the core of the first and newly established Matšeng
Biosphere Reserve in Lesotho. However, lack of baseline data makes it difficult to monitor the
wetland vegetation in BNR. This study characterised the vegetation of the high-altitude
montane palustrine wetlands of this area. Plant species composition was assessed using the
Braun-Blanquet approach, and the height and cover of the vegetation were measured.
Furthermore, environmental data were collected using standard methods. The data were
analysed by determining species richness and calculating Shannon-Wiener diversity and
evenness, as well as employing cluster analysis, canonical correspondence analysis and
redundancy analysis. The results show that a total of 175 plant species from 102 genera and 40
families were encountered. The dominant plant families were Asteraceae, Poaceae and
Cyperaceae. Hierarchical cluster analysis produced 10 plant communities in the range of 1–36
species per 3 m × 3 m plot. Important environmental factors influencing the wetland vegetation
were longitude, altitude, latitude, soil sodium, inundation, soil texture, soil magnesium and
soil phosphorus. The results indicate that the wetlands are not only in a relatively stable
condition, but also support diverse vegetation and store a substantial amount of carbon, thus
contributing to biodiversity conservation and climate change mitigation. Because the wetland
vegetation determines the functioning of the system, which in turn influences the supply of
ecosystem services, our findings form a baseline dataset for monitoring the BNR wetland
vegetation, especially in the face of climate change.
Conservation implications: The BNR wetlands fall within the catchment of the Lesotho
Highlands Water Project dams that are important for water resources in southern Africa.
Furthermore, the wetlands are of international conservation value because they form part of
the core of a UNESCO-declared man and biosphere reserve and play an important role in
supporting biodiversity.
Keywords: biodiversity conservation; climate change; ecosystem service; Maloti-Drakensberg;
Matšeng Biosphere Reserve; plant community; protected areas; water resources; wetland
vegetation.
... There has also been an increase in plant productivity in the alpine wetlands due to increase in temperature and precipitation . According to Chatterjee et al. (2010), direct warming of the lakes in high-elevation areas have altered the circulation patterns with continuous impacts on the biogeochemistry and functioning of the wetland ecosystem. ...
... High-elevation wetlands, which provide a variety of services, face severe degradation from changing weather patterns, cryospheric changes (glacier melting/disappearance, permafrost thawing), and soil erosion (Chatterjee et al., 2010). As such, the quality and quantity of water, habitat functions of biodiversity, cultural and spiritual values, and local livelihoods linked to the wetlands are impacted. ...
... There has also been an increase in plant productivity in the alpine wetlands due to increase in temperature and precipitation (Kang et al., 2020). According to Chatterjee et al. (2010), direct warming of the lakes in high-elevation areas have altered the circulation patterns with continuous impacts on the biogeochemistry and functioning of the wetland ecosystem. ...
... High-elevation wetlands, which provide a variety of services, face severe degradation from changing weather patterns, cryospheric changes (glacier melting/disappearance, permafrost thawing), and soil erosion (Chatterjee et al., 2010). As such, the quality and quantity of water, habitat functions of biodiversity, cultural and spiritual values, and local livelihoods linked to the wetlands are impacted. ...
The cryosphere of the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) is an important source of water for maintaining ecosystem health, supporting biological diversity, and providing ecosystem services (very high confidence). This biodiversity-rich region – 40% of which is under protected area coverage – is characterised by interconnected and diverse ecosystems. Sixty percent of the region features seasonal cryosphere (snow, glacier, permafrost, and glacial lakes) – a major source of water and other ecosystem services (very high confidence).
However, multiple drivers of change, including climate change, are impacting the fragile HKH ecosystem and cryosphere, bringing cascading impacts on surrounding ecosystems and human wellbeing (high confidence). As a fragile ecosystem, the HKH is extremely sensitive to climate change. Widespread shrinking of the cryosphere – attributable to climate change – is resulting in glacier mass loss, snow cover reduction, shrinkage of permafrost area, changes in hydrology, and increased natural hazards and disasters (high confidence). Cascading impacts have been reported in most ecosystems, affecting most inhabitant species (high confidence). A visible range shift of species to higher elevations, ecosystem degradation and changes, decrease in habitat suitability, species decline and extinction, and invasion by alien species have been reported, both increasing the vulnerabilities of biodiversity and people and affecting their wellbeing (high confidence).
Future scenarios paint an alarming picture at the ecosystem and species levels – increased ecosystem vulnerability and lowered ecosystem services flows will result in disruptions to social–ecological resilience (high confidence). There is increasing documentation of the cascading effects of cryosphere loss on ecosystems, including ecosystem degradation and changes in species structure and composition. Predicted scenarios show more extreme events taking place, with increasing imbalances in ecosystem functions resulting in more acute societal vulnerability (high confidence).
... Although the applied remote sensing approach does not allow for quantification of ice thickness, this parameter could either be estimated by field measurements or the application of terrestrial or satellite-based photogrammetry techniques, it can be assumed that ice thickness of individual aufeis fields varies on an inter-annual basis.The high-altitude wetlands are not only of great environmental importance but also serve as important grazing grounds. They are primarily sustained by snow and glacier meltwater70 and permafrost71 meltwater. The close proximity of aufeis fields to wetlands suggests that they supply additional water to those ecosystems, especially during melting at the onset of the vegetation period between May and ...
Aufeis is a common phenomenon in cold regions of the Northern Hemisphere that develops during winter by successive water overflow and freezing on ice-covered surfaces. Most studies on aufeis occurrence focus on regions in North America and Siberia, while research in High Mountain Asia (HMA) is still in an exploratory phase. This study investigates the extent and dynamics of icing processes and aufeis in the Tso Moriri basin, eastern Ladakh, India. Based on a combination of 235 Landsat 5 TM/8 OLI and Sentinel-2 imagery from 2008 to 2021 the occurrence of icing and aufeis was classified using a random forest classifier. A total of 27 frequently occurring aufeis fields with an average maximum extent of 9 km 2 were identified, located at a mean elevation of 4,700 m a.s.l. Temporal patterns show a distinct accumulation phase (icing) between November and April, and a melting phase lasting from May until July. Icing is characterized by high seasonal and inter-annual variability. Successive water overflow mainly occurs between January and March and seems to be related to diurnal freeze-thaw-cycles, whereas higher daytime temperatures result in larger icing areas. Aufeis feeding sources are often located within or in close vicinity to wetland areas, while vegetation is largely absent on surfaces with frequent aufeis formation. These interactions require more attention in future research. In addition, this study shows the high potential of a machine learning approach to monitor icing processes and aufeis, which can be transferred to other regions.
... The high-altitude wetlands (HAWs) are very unique, rich and fragile ecosystems mainly found at an altitude higher than 3000 meter above mean sea level in the mountains (Chatterjee et al., 2010). Page432 scientific details are available about the status of floral biodiversity for the most of these wetlands due to the remoteness and inaccessibility of the terrain of the region. ...
The current study was carried out around the Pangateng Tso (PTSO) high-altitude wetland area of Tawang district of Eastern Himalaya. A total 93 higher plant species belonging to 58 genus and 31 families were recorded from the PTSO lake area. A total 74 herbs followed by 16 shrubs and 3 tree species recorded from the study area. The largest number of species was noted from the family Asteraceae (13 spp.), followed by Ericaceae (11 spp.), Rosaceae (8 spp.), Primulaceae (6 spp.), Gentianaceae and Polygonaceae (5 spp. each), Papaveraceae & Campanulaceae (4 spp. each), Apiaceae (3 spp.). The genus Rhododendron exhibited highest diversity with 9 species followed by Primula (6 species), Potentila (4 spp.), Berberis (3 spp.), Cremanthodium (3 spp.), Meconopsis (2 spp.). Local Monpa communities of study area utilized various plant species such as Rhododendron, Picrorhiza, Primula, Potentilla, Meconopsis, Swertia for different ethnomedicinal purposes. A total 15 species were recorded as endemics restricted to the Eastern Himalayan Region, whereas 70 species were identified as near-endemics. Conservation and management strategy has also been suggested for the preservation of unique floral diversity of PTSO high-altitude wetland area.
