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Distributions of risk associated with ingestion exposure to PTE in rice (a, b, c, d, e, f, g) and bulgur (h, i, j, k, l, m, n) for Cd, Co, Cu, Mn, Sr, Zn chronic-toxic and Pb carcinogenic risk
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Rice and wheat are rich sources of essential elements. However, they may also accumulate potentially toxic elements (PTE). Bulgur, the popular alternative to rice in the eastern Mediterranean, is produced by processing wheat, during which PTE content may change. This study determined PTE concentrations in rice and bulgur collected from 50 participa...
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Citations
... In addition, the cultivation of plant on heavy metal-contaminated soil can adversely affect the plant quality which may cause critical health issues to humans and animals that feed on such plants Turan, 2019a, b). The consumption of food derived from plants contaminated by heavy metals can directly impair human health by inhibiting the functionalities of cells in inter-linked human body organs and thereby cause cardiovascular and renal instability, poor development of organs, gastrointestinal disturbance, intellectual disabilities in children, mental retardation, and infertility (Naeem et al., 2021;Ogundele et al., 2017;Rasool et al., 2021;Sofuoglu & Sofuoglu, 2017;Turan et al., 2018;Turan, 2019a, b;Van der Kuijp et al., 2013;Zubair et al., 2021). ...
The presence of heavy metals and naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORMs) in high concentrations in soils can be hazardous to exposed humans. This study is aimed at measuring the concentrations of heavy metals (Cu, Pb, Ni, Zn, Cd, Co, and Cr) and activity concentration of 232Th, 238U, and 40K in soils affected by and around a solid waste dumpsite in Osogbo metropolis, Nigeria. Atomic absorption spectrometry and gamma-ray spectrometric techniques were used to determine the concentrations of metals and NORMs, respectively. Possible environmental impact of the heavy metal content and the probable radiological hazard by the NORMs to the general public were assessed. The calculated pollution indices reported in this work for Co, Cr, Pb, and Ni show low pollution status. Geoaccumulation indices for Cu, Zn, and Cd indicated that the area under study is strongly contaminated by these metals. Evaluated ecological risk index narrowed down Cd as the poisonous metal with high concentration. The measured radionuclides’ mean activity concentrations and the evaluated mean of radium equivalent and absorbed dose rate values are higher than the recommended safe limit, an indication of possible radiological hazard. The principal factor analysis results explained 76% of the collection of data and described chips of galvanized/chrome metals, scrap metals, waste from electronics, Cr, and Cd-containing waste as sources of the heavy metals. The practice of land cultivation around the dumpsite should be deterred to prevent the transportation of these vicious heavy metals into the food chain.
... Toxic metal concentrations were low and suitable for daily intake and essentials minerals were within the dietary reference intake (Erdogan et al., 2015). Overall, these studies promoted burghul consumption as a "safer" and "healthier" food than rice based-foods [152,157]. ...
The interest in ancient cereals has been revived during the last decades due to the demand for products with health benefits, better taste and favourable nutritional composition. Especially the ancient wheat species -einkorn, emmer, khorasan and spelt- play a special role within the group of ancient cereals. The ancient wheat species evolved thousands of years ago and were the dominant wheat species in former times, but today their cultivation and use are negligible compared to modern wheats. A possible higher nutritional value of ancient wheat species compared to modern ones was the subject of several studies indicating that ancient wheat species only have slightly higher contents of e.g., bioactive phytochemicals. One characteristic of einkorn, emmer and spelt is that they are gluten-containing cereals, which give them better baking quality compared to pseudocereals, but gluten ingestion can also lead to adverse reactions in susceptible individuals. In modern wheat, the gluten is responsible for the superior baking quality and changes at the molecular level of this two-component glue explain the poorer baking quality of ancient wheat species. Nevertheless, ancient wheat species are not suitable for a gluten-free diet, even if differences in their immunogenic potential were identified in the context of celiac disease and wheat sensitivity.
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... Accordingly, bulgur can be used as a more nutritious alternative to rice. Due to the high level of arsenic that is commonly found in rice, and other potentially toxic elements such as cadmium, cobalt, and lead that accumulate in rice, experts propose that the inclusion of bulgur in one's diet as a substitute for rice be considered as a means to lower chronic toxic risks (Sofuoglu et al., 2014;Sofuoglu & Sofuoglu, 2018). In terms of processing effects on nutrition quality of bulgur, autoclave cooking decreases the contents of water-soluble vitamins (thiamin, niacin, panthothenic acid, pyridoxine, and riboflavin) present in the wheat more than atmospheric pressure cooking at 90 or 100°C, and sun drying decreases these same vitamins more than oven drying (at 60, 70 or 80°C) (Kadakal et al., 2007). ...
Background and objectives
Bulgur is an important food source in many countries around the world. In North America its consumption is increasing as it can be used as a more nutritious quick cooking substitute to rice. The main processing steps of bulgur from Triticum durum are reviewed including the comparison of different technologies for cooking, drying, debranning, and milling of bulgur and the effects of processing on the nutritional components of the grain.
Findings
Every step of the production process is crucial to final product quality. Cooking methods include parboiling, autoclave, microwave, and steam, with autoclaving being the most used technique but disadvantages include higher losses of water soluble vitamins and some reports of colour deterioration. Air, forced air, vacuum, microwave and infrared dryers, as well sun and solar drying, have all been investigated with infrared and microwave drying being promising novel methods for drying bulgur after cooking. Different types of mills can be used for bulgur particle size reduction and choice of mill will depend on size requirements however all bulgur should be larger than 0.5 mm with an ovoid shape and smooth exterior. Nutritional benefits of bulgur include relatively high protein and fibre content, resistant starch, B vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals such as lutein and ferulic acid.
Conclusions
Colour is a much studied quality attribute however its importance to non‐traditional consumers is unknown. Research is lacking on whole grain (minimally debranned) bulgur and the optimization of nutritional quality in conjunction with processing parameters. Due to the partial debranning there is wide variability in the reported fibre content of bulgur however overall it would be nutritionally beneficial to include bulgur in one’s diet.
Significance and novelty
The production of steps of bulgur are clarified and reviewed with consideration to the macro and micronutrient content. This review will allow for future research on bulgur to increase its utilization as a low cost value added plant‐based food.
The development of economy and society makes the heavy metal(loid)s pollution more serious and contamination of rice grains by heavy metal(loid)s is a worldwide problem. In order to appraise the health risks associated with heavy metal(loid)s (As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn) in rice grains, we performed a meta-analysis based on the datasets collected from the literature (n = 248) between 2010 to 2023. The global mean values obtained for heavy metal(loid)s were in the following order: Fe (214.1 µg g-1) > Zn (38 µg g-1) > Mn (29.3 µg g-1) > As (1.9 µg g-1) > Cu (6.8 µg g-1) > Cr (3.7 µg g-1) > Pb (6.6 µg g-1) > Ni (7.6 µg g-1) > Co (1.0 µg g-1) > Cd (0.20 µg g-1) and Hg (0.01 µg g-1). The relatively higher content of Pb, As, Cu, Hg and Zn was reported in China; Cr, Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu in Bangladesh; and Fe, Zn and Mn in Nigeria and India. The hazard quotient values of As were found greater than one for all the studied countries in both adults and children. These results suggest that contamination of rice grains with heavy metal(loid)s might lead different countries to establish strict legal guidelines and policies for preventing the heavy metal(loid)s contamination crop cultivation near contaminated areas.
Cereals such as rice and lentils can accumulate toxic elements including arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), and lead (Pb), which could lead to adverse health effects through diet. Cereals simultaneously contain essential elements including Magnesium (Mg), Calcium (Ca), Iron (Fe), Zinc (Zn), and Selenium (Se), which are vital for human health. We purchased a total of 63 rice and 19 lentils samples from retail stores and determined elemental composition using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). Our results showed mean concentrations (in µg/kg) of 177±79, 16±18 and 24±42 in brown rice, 117±76, 49±27, and 4±4 for wild rice, 172±65, 14±14, and 10.4±11 for black rice and 144±53, 21±24, and 22±42 in white rice for As, Cd, and Pb, respectively. Lentils had mean concentrations of 8.5±4.5, 2.8±3.4, and 24±40 in similar elements, respectively. Mean concentrations (in mg/kg) of Mg, Ca, Fe, Zn, and Se were 797±370, 207±220, 25±25, 24±13 and 0.199±0.330, respectively in all samples. However, lentils had higher concentrations of essential elements as compared to rice. Pollution index calculations indicated a level of pollution greater than 1 in brown rice. Median lifetime cancer risks were above the acceptable level for age groups 6 to <12 months to 11 <16 years in all rice samples except brown rice. Data in this study highlights the health risks associated with dietary exposure to toxic metals in cereals and the nutritional components in these food groups.