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Foot problems and deformities, which are highly prevalent in older people, may affect foot anthropometrics and result in older people having difficulty finding shoes that fit. This study aimed to characterise the dimensions and shape of the feet of older people and to determine whether foot anthropometrics were influenced by gender and/or the prese...
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... presence of any lesser toe deformities, such as claw or hammer toes, and participants were asked whether they suffered from, or had been diagnosed with, swollen or flat feet. prevalence of any of these foot problems differed according to gender, a series of Chi-square analyses were conducted. An alpha of 0.05 was selected as the level of significance for all statistical analyses, which were conducted using SPSS 15 for Windows (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). The distribution of shoe sizes for the men and women is illustrated in Figure 3. Shoe size for the women ranged from a US 4.5C to 13B, whereas the men ranged from an 8.5D to larger than a 14.5. The largest size that could be measured with the Brannock device was a man’s 14.5, with five of the men’s feet exceeding this value. Statistical analysis was conducted on data obtained for the right foot of each participant to ensure the assumption of data independence was met (Menz 2004). Independent t -tests were used to assess for any differences in absolute or normalised foot anthropometrics between men and women. Normalised foot anthropometrics were then entered into a stepwise discriminant function analysis to determine which variables were the most important in discriminating between the two genders. Independent t -tests were also used to determine any differences in normalised foot anthropometrics in those participants with specific foot problems (hallux valgus, toe deformities, swollen feet and flat feet) by comparing each of these four groups to those participants without any of the above men- tioned foot problems. In order to establish whether the Each of the 17 measured foot dimensions significantly differed between the two genders. Men recorded significantly larger values than the women for all dimensions with the exception of first toe and heel bone angles, whereby women had significantly larger angles (increased by 21.6 and 46.5%, respectively). As male participants had significantly longer feet (268.3 Æ 13.1 mm) than their female counterparts (245.7 Æ 13.5 mm; p 5 0.001), direct comparison of the absolute foot measurements were conducted for men and women whose foot length measured between 250– 256 and 257–262 mm (see Table 2). These two foot length categories corresponded with European shoe sizes 38 and 39, respectively (Krauss et al . 2008), and were the only two foot length categories with sufficient men and women to enable a valid statistical between- gender comparison. For the given foot length categories, men typically displayed great widths, heights and circumferences than the women, although the length measures did not differ between the genders (see Table 2). When foot dimensions, excluding angles, were normalised to foot length and averaged across all foot sizes, women had significantly lower first and fifth toe heights (7.4 and 5.5%, respectively) and a significantly longer medial ball length (1%; p 5 0.05) than their male counterparts. The stepwise discriminant function analysis identified first toe height, first toe angle, fifth toe angle, ball of foot height, medial ball length and instep circumference (in order of importance) to be associated with gender ( Ã 1⁄4 0.771; p 5 0.001). Fourteen percent ( n 1⁄4 43) of the participants reported that they suffered from swollen feet and 9% ( n 1⁄4 28) indicated that they had flat feet. Assessment of the participants’ feet revealed that 12% ( n 1⁄4 37) had moderate-to-severe hallux valgus and 25% ( n 1⁄4 78) had a lesser toe deformity. Fifty-four percent of the participants ( n 1⁄4 162) did not display any of these four foot problems and were therefore used as the comparison group. The only foot problem associated with gender was the presence of lesser toe deformity, whereby men had a higher incidence (30%) than women (19.5%; 2 1⁄4 4.4; p 1⁄4 0.02). When the foot dimensions were pooled for gender, older individuals who were identified as having moderate-to-severe hallux valgus, lesser toe deformities, swollen or flat feet had significantly different foot anthropometrics compared to those without any foot problems (see Table 3). Despite the world’s population ageing, this is the first study to comprehensively evaluate the foot shape of older adults living in Australia. Furthermore, it repre- sents one of the largest databases of foot anthropometrics for people aged over 60 years. Although similar measurements have been conducted on 213 Thai men and women aged 60–80 years (Chaiwanichsiri et al . 2008) and 268 Japanese men and women aged 56–81 years (Kouchi 2003), other reported studies investigat- ing foot dimensions of older individuals are ...
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Citations
... Precise measurement of foot dimensions-including length, width, and arch height-is essential for reducing biomechanical stress and preventing chronic conditions such as structural foot deformities (4). Advances in three-dimensional scanning technology have enabled the creation of sophisticated models capable of measuring complex parameters including arch height and toe angulation (5). High-resolution models prove particularly valuable in clinical settings for diagnosing and managing conditions such as pes planus and cavus foot deformities, where measurement precision is paramount (6). ...
... Krauss et al. (2008) employed three-dimensional scanners to analyze ethnic and gender differences in foot morphology, identifying structural variations with implications for equipment design (16). Michael et al. (2010) demonstrated that three-dimensional scanning technology provides superior accuracy compared to traditional methods for ergonomic footwear design (5). Despite these advantages, challenges persist including marker requirements for anatomical reference points and substantial equipment costs. ...
Background Anthropometry, the scientific discipline concerning precise human body measurements, plays a pivotal role across various industries, particularly in medical applications where accurate data are essential for prosthetic and orthotic design. Conventional anthropometric data acquisition methods are often time-intensive and costly. This study establishes a comprehensive anthropometric database of Iranian ethnic groups utilizing three-dimensional scanning technology coupled with a Python-based algorithm for markerless foot measurement. Methods and Materials This cross-sectional study was conducted at the Iranian Foot Anthropometry Research Center (Sahand University of Technology, Faculty of Biomedical Engineering). The study population comprised 4,312 participants (2,527 males and 1,785 females), aged 6 to 76 years (mean 36.35 ± 14.76) from East Azerbaijan Province. A Python program has been developed to extract 35 anthropometric foot indices from three-dimensional scans without the need for physical markers. For validation purposes, 400 participants were randomly selected for two-dimensional foot scanning, with five foot-length indices and two foot-width indices extracted from both two-dimensional and three-dimensional scans. An independent samples t-test was performed using SPSS 26 to assess measurement reliability. Results Statistical analysis revealed that all indices demonstrated P-values exceeding 0.05, confirming the reliability of data extracted by the Python algorithm and establishing the methodological robustness of the three-dimensional scanning approach. Conclusion This study successfully validates the reliability of a Python-based algorithm for extracting anthropometric foot indices from three-dimensional scans, providing an efficient and accurate tool for foot measurement in clinical and research applications. How to cite this article Azghani M, Hazrati E, Partovi Fard A, Gadimi A, Extraction of foot anthropometric dimensions using a markerless 3D scanner based on big data analysis in East Azerbaijan Province. Modares Mechanical Engineering; 2025;25(03):155-161.
... Mickle et al. [63] 312 New South Wales, Australia 60 + Men had significantly higher normalised 1 st and 5 th toe heights and a greater 5 th toe angle than women, and women had a significantly longer normalised medial ball length and greater first toe and heel bone angles than men. ...
The morphology of the human foot varies considerably due to the combined effects of heredity, culture, lifestyle, nutrition and climatic factors, and these have anthropological, clinical and forensic importance. The shape of the foot has been of great interest to numerous authors because of its variability and its importance from both the morphological and functional points of view. Foot morphology determines the size and shape of feet or footprints and thereby makes them unique data to establish human identity. This review study is an attempt to explore the variation in human foot morphology in different ethnic populations as well as the effect of age, sex and obesity on the morphology of the human foot. The database was searched from June 2021 to December 2021 using Google Scholar, ResearchGate and PubMed employing unique and specific combinations of keywords, such as ethnic differences, foot anthropometry, foot dimensions, foot morphology, footprints, gender differences in foot dimension, sexual dimorphism in foot anthropometry, foot shape, obesity and foot morphology, and the effect of age on foot morphology. A total of 55 studies were retrieved covering the years from 1975 to 2020. Literature revealed that foot morphological characteristics vary among different ethnic groups and also exhibit sexual dimorphism and reflect specific characteristics at different ages of life. Obesity was found to have a significant impact on selected foot morphological parameters. Studies on quantitative variations in foot morphology from the anthropological point of view in the Indian context are limited, and, therefore, similar studies should be instigated among different ethnic groups living in different parts of India.
... Although several requirements must be met for a quality foot shape assessment, perhaps the most important is the choice of foot measurements to be collected. The studies we reviewed examined foot shape for different purposes (Domjanic et al., 2013;2015;Stanković et al., 2018;Bookstein and Domjanić, 2014;Hawes et al., 1992;Conrad et al., 2019;Wang et al., 2018;Chen et al., 2018;Rijal et al., 2018;Chun et al., 2017;Price and Nester, 2016;Baek and Lee, 2016;Saghazadeh et al., 2015;Fritz et al., 2013;Krauss et al., 2011;Hong et al., 2011;Mickle et al., 2010;Krauss et al., 2008;Kouchi and Tsutsumi, 1996;Kim and Do, 2019;Echeita et al., 2016;Shu et al., 2015;Chiou et al., 2015;De Castro et al., 2011;de Castro et al., 2010a;de Castro et al., 2010b;Luo et al., 2009;Xiong et al., 2008;Stolwijk et al., 2013;Stanković et al., 2020;Booth et al., 2019;Swedler et al., 2010;Menz et al., 2012;Garrow et al., 2001;Thomson, 1994;Wunderlich and Cavanagh, 2001;Bob-Manuel and Didia, 2009;Jurca et al., 2019;Tsung et al., 2003;Young, 2020;Castro et al., 2010;Park and Kent, 2020;Jelen et al., 2005;Sforza et al., 1998;Barton et al., 2010;Levinger et al., 2010;Oladipo et al., 2009;Hill et al., 2017;Ballester et al., 2019;Alcacer et al., 2020;Cowley and Marsden, 2013;Wu et al., 2018;Maiwald et al., 2018;Ma and Luximon, 2014;Luximon and Goonetilleke, 2004;Mochimaru et al., 2000;Sun et al., 2009;Rogati et al., 2019;Huang et al., 2018;Cabero et al., 2021;Hu et al., 2018;Boppana and Anderson, 2021;Cao et al., 2023;Zhang et al., 2023;Schuster et al., 2021;Bogdan et al., 2017;Zhao et al., 2020;Yuan et al., 2021;Rogati et al., 2021;Allan et al., 2023) but, in general, foot shape was assessed by extracting important geometrical features using various measurement procedures. We observed three main approaches to the collection of foot measurements: qualitative (e.g., foot posture index, visual assessment), anthropometric (e.g., lengths, angles, circumferences, indexes), and geometric (e.g., marker locations, boundary curves, surfaces). ...
... Such studies make up 63% of those reviewed (46 of 73). These approaches collect one or more numerical measurements obtained as distinctive foot dimensions such as lengths, widths, angles, girths, heights, circumferences (Stanković et al., 2018;Bookstein and Domjanić, 2014;Hawes et al., 1992;Wang et al., 2018;Chen et al., 2018;Rijal et al., 2018;Chun et al., 2017;Price and Nester, 2016;Baek and Lee, 2016;Saghazadeh et al., 2015;Fritz et al., 2013;Krauss et al., 2011;Hong et al., 2011;Mickle et al., 2010;Krauss et al., 2008;Kouchi and Tsutsumi, 1996;Kim and Do, 2019;Echeita et al., 2016;Shu et al., 2015;De Castro et al., 2011;de Castro et al., 2010a;Wunderlich and Cavanagh, 2001;Barton et al., 2010;Levinger et al., 2010;Oladipo et al., 2009;Ballester et al., 2019;Wu et al., 2018;Maiwald et al., 2018;Huang et al., 2018;Cao et al., 2023;Zhang et al., 2023;Limon et al., 2023;Chertenko and Booth, 2022) or specific foot parameters such as arch index (Hawes et al., 1992;Chun et al., 2017;De Castro et al., 2011;de Castro et al., 2010a;Stolwijk et al., 2013;Levinger et al., 2010), or valgus index (Thomson, 1994). Figure 3 shows the anthropometric measurements most commonly seen in the reviewed studies. ...
... measurement step, important features of the foot are manually annotated by placing markers at significant anatomical locations. These markers are placed either directly on the foot (physical markers) (Chen et al., 2018;Saghazadeh et al., 2015;Hong et al., 2011;Mickle et al., 2010;Krauss et al., 2008;Kouchi and Tsutsumi, 1996;Kim and Do, 2019;Shu et al., 2015;Luo et al., 2009;Xiong et al., 2008;Tsung et al., 2003;Hill et al., 2017;Alcacer et al., 2020;Maiwald et al., 2018;Mochimaru et al., 2000;Cao et al., 2023) or after the digital version of foot shape is obtained (virtual markers) (Rijal et al., 2018;Fritz et al., 2013;Krauss et al., 2011;Hu et al., 2018;Zhang et al., 2023;Bogdan et al., 2017). In the latter case, virtual markers are placed at significant anatomical locations on the digital foot representation using a variety of software tools [e.g., ScanWorX in the study of (Krauss et al., 2011), Geomagic in the study of (Fritz et al., 2013;Zhang et al., 2023), or D+ in the study of (Rijal et al., 2018)]. ...
Introduction
Foot shape assessment is important to characterise the complex shape of a foot, which is in turn essential for accurate design of foot orthoses and footwear, as well as quantification of foot deformities (e.g., hallux valgus). Numerous approaches have been described over the past few decades to evaluate foot shape for orthotic and footwear purposes, as well as for investigating how one’s habits and personal characteristics influence the foot shape. This paper presents the developments reported in the literature for foot shape assessment.
Method
In particular, we focus on four main dimensions common to any foot assessment: (a) the choice of measurements to collect, (b) how objective these measurement procedures are, (c) how the foot measurements are analyzed, and (d) other common characteristics that can impact foot shape analysis.
Results
For each dimension, we summarize the most commonly used techniques and identify additional considerations that need to be made to achieve a reliable foot shape assessment.
Discussion
We present how different choices along these two dimensions impact the resulting foot assessment, and discuss possible improvements in the field of foot shape assessment.
... This should be reflected in the shoe design, where the width of the shoe design should increase for the ball head at a farther location than that in younger women's shoe designs. (Mickle, et al., 2010). ...
... In this case, it is recommended to buy shoes with specific materials capable of stretching when the feet exhibit swelling. (Mickle, et al., 2010). Hence, there are many considerations when designing a perfect shoe. ...
... This current study adopted a survey approach to investigate whether the footwear needs and preferences we highlighted in our interviewbased study (Reeves, et al., 2022) are representative of a wider population in the UK and Ireland. Also, given the differences in foot anthropometrics between older males and older females (Mickle, Munro, Lord, Menz, & Steele, 2010) and that sport footwear selection and foot related problems may be affected by gender and competition level (Kirk, et al., 2022), we also sought to explore these additional factors that might influence footwear needs in this population. Therefore, for over 55 year olds participating in sports involving a change of direction (to capture both racket and team sports), our aims were: ...
... The need for cushioning and a variety of widths of general footwear becomes more pertinent with changes due to ageing such as stiffer joints, reduced medial longitudinal arch height and foot deformities (S. J. Dixon, Hinman, Creaby, Kemp, & Crossley, 2010;Echeita, Hijmans, Smits, Van der Woude, & Postema, 2016;Lilley, Dixon, & Stiles, 2011;Mickle, et al., 2010;Naidoo et al., 2011). It has been shown that older adults often wear everyday footwear that is too narrow for their feet, particularly in the forefoot region (Buldt & Menz, 2018;Jalali et al., 2020). ...
... It is important to note that measuring area, volume, and RMS parameters necessitates a more significant investment of time and demands more expertise than conventional parameters like foot length, width, and height.However, this more nuanced assessment provides a deeper understanding of foot characteristics and has the potential to yield valuable insights for clinical and research purposes.Using 3D scans of the feet enables the design of personalized footwear. Mickle et al.[28] observed significant foot morphology alterations in elderly individuals through 3D foot scanning, emphasizing the necessity for shoe designs that accommodate these changes. Our study similarly highlights morphological foot changes in elderly stroke patients, suggesting the potential requirement for specialized footwear. ...
Objective: This study aimed to quantitatively assess the changes in foot morphology in stroke patients using 3D scanning and focused on parameters like foot volume, area, and the root mean square difference (RMS) values. The objective was to enhance our understanding of post-stroke foot morphology and its potential relevance for rehabilitation, especially in designing orthotic supports and specialized footwear for stroke patients. Methods: Our study involved fourteen right hemiplegia patients and twenty healthy subjects. Stroke patients were assessed using international scales. We utilized a 3D scanning device to digitize and examine the differences in foot morphology between hemiplegic and healthy subjects, analyzing the data on a computer platform. Results: In the context of post-stroke individuals with hemiplegic feet, our morphometric analysis revealed notable differences in foot area and foot volume when compared to their healthy counterparts. These distinctions extended to linear measurements encompassing foot length, foot width, instep height, bimalleolar width, and ball width. Significantly, RMS exhibited a substantial increase in the patient cohort compared to the healthy group (p<0.05). Our investigation also established correlations between these standing morphometric parameters and RMS alterations, with noteworthy coefficients for various parameters: RMS(Foot Length Difference, 0.41), RMS(Foot Width Difference, 0.45), RMS(Instep Height Difference, 0.58), RMS(Ball Width Difference, 0.58), RMS(Bimalleolar Width Difference, 0.19), RMS(Volume Difference, 0.74), and RMS(Area Difference, 0.62). Conclusion: This study suggests incorporating RMS values as a novel parameter in the evaluation process. We anticipate that these findings will have practical implications, particularly in designing orthotic supports, specialized footwear for stroke patients, and the formulation of tailored rehabilitation programs within clinical settings.
... As for shoe materials, research has found that fabrics (78.8%) of medium thickness (71.2%) are the most preferred, followed by leather (15%) and plastic (6.2%). Both young and elderly participants agree that they prefer sports shoes made of textile materials as walking shoes, with a low heel height and laces as a fastener [7,8]. ...
The purpose of the study was to evaluate the physical and mechanical properties of various textile materials based on polyester and cotton for shoe uppers and lining. For that purpose, the influence of the ratio of a mixture of cotton and polyester fibers on the quality of the fabric was investigated. As a result, fabrics with the same composition but different yarn numbers differed from each other in specified properties. With an increase in the content of polyester, all specified properties increase except for vapor permeability, which makes it possible to correctly select the composition of fabrics for shoes.
... Human foot morphology is highly variable and is influenced by a broad array of factors, including age [1], sex [2], ethnicity [3], body mass [4], genetic disorders [5], and musculoskeletal foot conditions such as hallux valgus [6,7] and osteoarthritis [8]. Foot shape impacts many aspects of an individual's life, including standing balance, movement during walking, sporting performance, 16:24 predisposition to lower limb injury, and footwear fit [9]. ...
Objective
The objectives of this study were to: (i) review and provide a narrative synthesis of three-dimensional (3D) foot surface scanning methodological and statistical analysis protocols, and (ii) develop a set of recommendations for standardising the reporting of 3D foot scanning approaches.
Methods
A systematic search of the SCOPUS, ProQuest, and Web of Science databases were conducted to identify papers reporting 3D foot scanning protocols and analysis techniques. To be included, studies were required to be published in English, have more than ten participants, and involve the use of static 3D surface scans of the foot. Papers were excluded if they reported two-dimensional footprints only, 3D scans that did not include the medial arch, dynamic scans, or derived foot data from a full body scan.
Results
The search yielded 78 relevant studies from 17 different countries. The available evidence showed a large variation in scanning protocols. The subcategories displaying the most variation included scanner specifications (model, type, accuracy, resolution, capture duration), scanning conditions (markers, weightbearing, number of scans), foot measurements and definitions used, and statistical analysis approaches. A 16-item checklist was developed to improve the consistency of reporting of future 3D scanning studies.
Conclusion
3D foot scanning methodological and statistical analysis protocol consistency and reporting has been lacking in the literature to date. Improved reporting of the included subcategories could assist in data pooling and facilitate collaboration between researchers. As a result, larger sample sizes and diversification of population groups could be obtained to vastly improve the quantification of foot shape and inform the development of orthotic and footwear interventions and products.
... On the other hand, our results are conflicting with previous studies in which women presented significantly higher foot width, truncated standard length, and smaller foot height measurements compared to men 23,24 . The inconsistency may derive from ethnic and cultural differences, measurement instruments, and the age of participants. ...
The aim of the study was identify the influence of gender and age of healthy adults on the foot structure and the plantar pressure during gait. Sample comprising 608 women and men participants. To identify the structure of the foot, anthropometric measurements of both the total and the truncated length of the foot, the width of the forefoot, and the heights of the back and navicular were taken. Peak pressure and plantar contact area in three foot-masks (forefoot, middle foot, and hindfoot) were considered markers of plantar pressure. The data were analyzed by two-way variance analysis. No significant influence of age on the foot structure dimensions was identified; however, women presented measures equivalent to the five significantly smaller anthropometric markers. As for the peak plantar pressure, both males and females showed statistically similar values, but significant differences were observed for age. As to the plantar contact area, while age did not have significant influence, men showed significantly higher values in the three foot-masks. The findings suggest that gender influences the foot structure and the plantar contact area, while age influences the peak of plantar pressure.
... The old women group consisted of women aged 65 years or above who could walk independently across a distance of at least 6 m with or without a walking aid. 14 The body mass index of the old women group ranged from 14.1 to 34.1 kg/m 2 (mean = 23.9; SD = 4), whereas that of the young women group ranged from 17.0 to 26.9 kg/m 2 (mean = 19.5; ...
Foot morphological changes induced by degenerative processes are commonly found in old people. Such changes in foot anthropometry may adversely affect foot health and footwear comfort, and prolonged use of ill-fitting footwear may even cause foot deformation. This study compares foot anthropometric measurements between young and old women to determine key foot measurements, which can also act as indicators for developing footwear appropriate for the elderly. Using a three-dimensional handheld scanner, 11 foot anthropometric measurements are captured and used to characterize the dimensions and foot shape between young and old women. Eighty-two women between the ages of 20 and 95 years—that is, 41 young women (mean = 24.0; standard deviation = 3.5) and 41 old women (mean = 82.1; standard deviation = 7.2)—were recruited for this study. The results indicate that old women have a significantly longer and wider heel than young women as well as significantly larger ball and instep circumferences after normalization for foot length. Old women also exhibit larger deformity in the degree of hallux valgus and more pronated feet than young women do. A discriminant analysis linear equation has also been established to classify their foot type based on heel length and heel width with reference to their age group.
