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Distribution of macro and micronutrients between plant organs of medical cannabis plants as affected by enhanced nutrition supplements. Concentration of N (A), P (B), K (C), Ca (D), Mn (E), Zn (F), Fe (G), Cl (H) in flowers, fan leaves, inflorescence leaves, and stems. Presented data are averages ± SE (n = 6). Different letters above the bars represent significant differences between treatments by Tukey’s HSD test at α = 0.05.
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Mineral nutrition is a major factor affecting plant growth and function. Increasing evidence supports the involvement of macro and micronutrients in secondary metabolism. The use of the appropriate nutritional measures including organic fertilizers, supplements, and biostimulants is therefore a vital aspect of medicinal plant production including m...
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Environmental conditions, including the availability of mineral nutrients, affect secondary metabolism in plants. Therefore, growing conditions have significant pharmaceutical and economic importance for Cannabis sativa. Phosphorous is an essential macronutrient that affects central biosynthesis pathways. In this study, we evaluated the hypothesis...
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... Even mineral nutrition or other soil additives can affect cannabinoids. Supplementation with NPK fertilizer increased cannabigerol (CBG) concentration of flowers by 71% and decreased cannabinol (CBN) in flowers and inflorescences (Bernstein et al. 2019b). Further, the ratio of N:P:K fertilization could introduce variability. ...
Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) alters the gaseous composition of air surrounding packaged goods to prevent deleterious oxidation associated reactions. MAP has been adopted for the storage of cannabis, though a recent study revealed little difference in terpene content under MAP conditions. Questions regarding its efficacy for preservation of high value compounds like terpenes and cannabinoids lost during postharvest storage remain. The goal of this research is to determine weather N 2 MAP preserves high value compounds of cannabis during its postharvest storage. This experiment followed a completed randomized block design. There were two factors of interest. The first was storage atmosphere (atmospheric or N 2 MAP). The second was storage duration (18, 46, or 74 days). The experiment was then blocked by cannabis chemovar using 5 different chemovars. The concentration of 17 cannabinoids was evaluated through UPLC-UV and 61 volatile terpene compounds through GC–MS. Concentrations were compared over time and between storage treatments. There were no significant differences in total cannabinoids and volatile terpene compounds over time or between storage treatments. Individual cannabinoids Δ ⁹ -THC, CBG, CBNA, CBC, THCV, and THCVA all increased during storage time while THCA decreased. CBG and THCV only increased under MAP storage. Individual aromatics limonene, β-pinene, α-pinene, camphene, and terpinolene all only decreased during storage under N 2 MAP. Only caryophyllene oxide and α-humulene increased under N 2 MAP storage. β-Myrcene decreased under atmospheric storage, but not under N 2 MAP. While N 2 MAP had no effect on the preservation of total cannabinoids and aromatics during storage, it did influence several individual compounds. CBG, THCV, and α-humulene all increased under N 2 MAP. N2 MAP also maintained the concentration β-myrcene over time, though the preservation of β-myrcene was offset by a decrease limonene. Overall, N 2 MAP was not needed for preservation of most high value compounds but did have an effect of some compounds with reputed therapeutic benefits.
... The pharmacological effects of cannabis are primarily attributed to terpene-phenolic compounds and cannabinoids [21], which can be divided into ten primary groups as shown in Figure 1, some of which are the focus of this study [22][23][24]. These include Cannabigerol (CBG) and Cannabichromene (CBC) [25]; Cannabidiol (CBD) [22]; and Tetrahydrocannabinol (D9-THC) [26]. For each cannabinoid, the substituents on the main carbon chain are listed as R1, R2, R3 and R4, which specify possible functional groups or atoms that define the specific cannabinoid. ...
... For example, Bernstein et al. [26] discovered through their research that mineral nutrition increased the accumulation of several nutrients in different organs, which might stimulate cannabinoid synthesis, but it is still speculated that this effect might be speciesand compound-dependent. Additionally, Saloner et al. [27], through their research, discovered that K concentration requirements were different across tested cultivars. ...
... However, no positive effects of such high P concentrations have been demonstrated, especially in the flowering phase [55]. Additionally, authors such as Bernstein et al. [26], Cockson et al. [55], Veazie et al. [56], and Caplan et al. [19] observed no positive effects on flower or cannabinoid yield with P doses above 60 mg per liter. ...
Due to the typical production of Cannabis sativa L. for medical use in an artificial environment, it is crucial to optimize environmental and nutritional factors to enhance cannabinoid yield and quality. While the effects of light intensity and nutrient composition on plant growth are well-documented for various crops, there is a relative lack of research specific to Cannabis sativa L., especially in controlled indoor environments where both light and nutrient inputs can be precisely manipulated. This research analyzes the effect of different light intensities and nutrient solutions on growth, flower yield, and cannabinoid concentrations in seeded chemotype III cannabis (high CBD, low THC) in a controlled environment. The experiment was performed in a licensed production facility in the Czech Republic. The plants were exposed to different light regimes during vegetative phase and flowering phase (light 1 (S1), photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) 300 µmol/m2/s during vegetative phase, 900 µmol/m2/s in flowering phase and light 2 (S2) PPFD 500 µmol/m2/s during vegetative phase, 1300 µmol/m2/s during flowering phase) and different nutrition regimes R1 (fertilizer 1) and R2 (fertilizer 2). Solution R1 (N-NO3− 131.25 mg/L; N-NH4+ 6.23 mg/L; P2O5 30.87 mg/L; K2O 4112.04 mg/L; CaO 147.99 mg/L; MgO 45.68 mg/L; SO42− 45.08 mg/L) was used for the whole cultivation cycle (vegetation and flowering). Solution R2 was divided for vegetation phase (N-NO3− 171.26 mg/L; N-NH4+ 5.26 mg/L; P2O5 65.91 mg/L; K2O 222.79 mg/L; CaO 125.70 mg/L; MgO 78.88 mf/L; SO42− 66.94 mg/L) and for flowering phase (N-NO3− 97.96 mg/L; N-NH4+ 5.82 mg/L; P2O5 262.66 mg/L; K2O 244.07 mg/L; CaO 138.26 mg/L; MgO 85.21 mg/L; SO42− 281.54 mg/L). The aim of this study was to prove a hypothesis that light will have a significant impact on the yield of flowers and cannabinoids, whereas fertilizers would have no significant effect. The experiment involved a four-week vegetative phase followed by an eight-week flowering phase. During the vegetative and flowering phases, no nutrient deficiencies were observed in plants treated with either nutrient solution R1 (fertilizer 1) or R2 (fertilizer 2). The ANOVA analysis showed that fertilizers had no significant effect on the yield of flowers nor cannabinoids. Also, light intensity differences between groups S1 (light 1) and S2 (light 2) did not result in visible differences in plant growth during the vegetative stage. However, by the fifth week of the flowering phase, plants under higher light intensities (S2—PPFD 1300 µmol/m2/s) developed noticeably larger and denser flowers than plants in the lower light intensity group (S1). The ANOVA analysis also confirmed that the higher light intensities positively influenced cannabidiol (CBD), tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabigerol (CBG), and cannabichromene (CBC) when the increase in the concentration of individual cannabinoids in the harvested product was 17–43%. Nonetheless, the study did not find significant differences during the vegetative stage, highlighting that the impact of light intensities is phase-specific. These results are limited to controlled indoor conditions, and further research is needed to explore their applicability to other environments and genotypes.
... The cannabinoid content of hemp is primarily determined by genetic factors; however, environmental conditions also play a significant role (Chandra et al. 2013;Namdar et al. 2018;Kovalchuk et al. 2020). The production of cannabinoids, such as THC and CBD, is greatly affected by various environmental factors and stressors, such as light, temperature, water deficit, nutrients, heavy metals, plant hormones, and soil bacteria as well as by biotic stressors, such as insects and microbial pathogens (Magagnini et al. 2018;Eichhorn Bilodeau et al. 2019;Caplan et al. 2019;Bernstein et al. 2019;Husain et al. 2019;Burgel et al. 2022). Cannabinoids can be affected by abiotic environmental stressors, particularly by the temperature (Qaderi et al. 2023). ...
... Mineral nutrients and primary macronutrients, in particular, are among the main environmental factors that have an impact on plant development, physiology, and metabolism (Lea and Morot-Gaudry, 2001;Saloner and Bernstein, 2022). Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) are the three primary macronutrients vital for various aspects of plant metabolism (Gorelick et al., 2019). ...
... The youngest mature fan leaf was used to measure the amounts of chlorophyll a and b using a previously reported methodology (Gorelick et al., 2019). Chlorophyll a and b were calculated using Equations 2 and 3 as described previously (Lichtenthaler and Wellburn, 1983). ...
Cannabis cultivated for medical and adult use is a high-value horticultural crop in North America; however, we lack information on its optimal mineral nutrition due to previous legal restrictions. This study evaluated the mineral requirements of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) for cannabis in the vegetative stage using response surface analysis. Plants were cultivated in a hydroponic system with various nutrient solution treatments (mg L⁻¹) of N (132.7, 160, 200, 240, and 267.3), P (9.6, 30, 60, 90, and 110.5), and K (20.8, 60, 117.5, 175, and 214.2) according to a central composite design. Nutrient interactions (N × K, K × P, and N × P × K) had a significant effect on the vegetative growth of the cannabis plants. N × K interaction had a significant effect on leaf mass and stem mass. K × P interaction had a significant effect on dry root mass, leaf mass, stem mass, leaf area, specific leaf area, and chlorophyll a and b contents. N × P × K interaction had a significant effect on root mass, leaf mass, stem mass, stem diameter, leaf area, and chlorophyll a and b contents. The optimum concentrations of total nitrogen, P, K, calcium, and sulfur in the cannabis leaves were 0.54, 0.073, 0.27, 0.56, and 0.38 mg g⁻¹, respectively. An increase in P and K concentrations decreased the magnesium concentration in the leaves, but it was unaffected by the increase in N concentration. The recommended primary macronutrients for cannabis plants in the vegetative stage based on the maximum desirability and nutrient use efficiencies were 160–200 mg L⁻¹ N, 30 mg L⁻¹ P, and 60 mg L⁻¹ K. These findings can offer valuable insight and guidance to growers regarding the mineral requirements for cannabis during the vegetative stage.
... It has been hypothesized that these metabolites have a role to play in crop growth improvement, hence, the implication for endophyte-plantmetabolites interaction, although this roadmap for crop productivity enhancement has not been explored (Taghinasab and Jabaji, 2020). Regarding the nutrient impact on cannabis yield and metabolite content, synthetic NPK application improved cannabigerol, leaf, flower, and stem biomass (Bernstein et al., 2019). In addition, endophytic bacteria reportedly improved quinolones in Opium poppy, carbon assimilation, light capture, and THC content in cannabis. ...
... High levels of potassium enhance secondary compound metabolism, and reduce carbohydrate accumulation and plant damage from insect pests [11]. Although the biosynthesis of plant metabolites is mainly controlled by genetics, environmental factors also affect the production of plant metabolites [12]. For example, macro-volume mineral elements can affect terpene distribution in aromatic plants [13]. ...
In order to investigate the distribution and accumulation characteristics of metabolites and mineral elements in different parts of Peganum harmala L. (P. harmala), and the synergistic or antagonistic effects between them. In this study, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometer (ICP-OES) were used to determine the contents of metabolites (proline, phosphorylcholine, choline, lysine, 4-hydroxyisoleucine, asparagine, acetic acid, sucrose, harmaline and vasicine) and mineral elements (Ca, Mg, K, P, Na, Cr, Cu, Fe, Zn, Mn, Ni, C, N) in five parts of P. harmala, including root, seed, testa, stem and leaf, and to analyze the relationship among the contents of metabolites and mineral elements. The results showed that the contents of acetic acid, proline, lysine, sucrose and Fe in the root were higher than those in other parts, and the contents of harmaline, phosphorylcholine, P, C, N and Zn in the seeds were the highest. The leaves were rich in vasicine, Na, K, Ca, Mg and Mn. The principal component analysis (PCA) showed that the cumulative variance contribution of the first two principal components was 69.00 %, and the loading values of K, Cu and sucrose were higher, which was consistent with the results of biplot and cluster analysis(HCA). Correlation analysis (CA) results showed that there was a strong overall correlation between the different components of seeds and leaves, and the correlation was greater than that of other parts. The results of this study are helpful to understand the correlation of functional traits among different parts of plants, and determine the internal mechanism of controlling functional traits and the proportional relationship between traits, so as to provide a reference for the resource utilization of plants.
... Bernstein et al. analyzed the effects of adding various minerals, including humic acid, phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium, onto the cannabinoid profile of cannabis grown on commercial irrigation media [133]. Each supplement affected cannabinoid concentrations differently depending on the plant organ. ...
This review provides an overview of cannabis-based phytocannabinoids, focusing on their mechanisms of action, therapeutic applications, and production processes, along with the environmental factors that affect their quality and efficacy. Phytocannabinoids such as THC (∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol), CBD (cannabidiol), CBG (cannabigerol), CBN (cannabinol), and CBC (cannabichromene) exhibit significant therapeutic potential in treating various physical and mental health conditions, including chronic pain, epilepsy, neurodegenerative diseases, skin disorders, and anxiety. The cultivation of cannabis plays a crucial role in determining cannabinoid profiles, with indoor cultivation offering more control and consistency than outdoor methods. Environmental factors such as light, water, temperature, humidity, nutrient management, CO2, and the drying method used are key to optimizing cannabinoid content in inflorescences. This review outlines the need for broader data transfer between the health industry and technological production, especially in terms of what concentration and cannabinoid ratios are effective in treatment. Such data transfer would provide cultivators with information on what environmental parameters should be manipulated to obtain the required final product.
... Cannabinoids are one of secondary metabolite products. The important cannabinoids are tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) that are produced in the trichomes of the female flowers and in the leaves surrounding the inflorescences of Cannabis (Bernstein et al., 2019;Reichel et al., 2022). Some characteristics of plant morphology and cannabinoids are dependent upon the species and the growing conditions. ...
... The application of NPK fertilizer can accelerate and optimize plant growth and development (Fiolita et al., 2017). NPK fertilizer applied to plants can increase nutrient absorption of plants, as well as increase the growth and development of plant (Bernstein et al., 2019;Yamika et al., 2021;Bentamra et al., 2023). This is related to the role of nitrogen in preparing amino acids, nucleic acids, nucleotides and chlorophyll, phosphorus plays a role in storing and transferring energy and potassium as an enzyme activator and helps transport assimilation results from the leaves to all plant tissues (Mato et al., 2022). ...
Background: Ginger is a highly demanded commodity that serves multiple purposes, including as a spice and a key ingredient in medicine. Since Indonesia has experienced a decrease in ginger production from 307,241.52 tons in 2021 to 247,455.49 tons in 2022, it is imperative to boost productivity. Kalimantan is dominated by peatlands, so farmers in West Kalimantan must optimize their management of peat soil to achieve the greatest possible yield. Methods: Research was conducted in Tanjungpura University, Pontianak City, Indonesia from May 1st to November 28th 2023. The study used a factorial randomized block design, with ash type (cow manure, rice husk, wood and coconut fiber) and NPK fertilizer dose (600-1200 kg/ha). Result: Different types of ash have varying effects on the growth and yield of ginger plants in peat soil. Cow manure ash is the most effective based on the dry weight of the plant, the number of tillers and the fresh weight of the rhizomes. However, NPK fertilizer doses did not significantly impact the growth and yield variables of ginger plants in peat soil.
... Similar to other crops, when soil phosphorus levels are adequate, additional phosphorus fertilizer may not significantly improve hemp yield [138]. However, studies have shown that additional phosphorus can enhance yield under conditions of low initial soil fertility [139]. Varieties of hemp intended for grain production may require higher phosphorus levels, as preliminary data indicate phosphorus accumulation in hemp seeds [140]. ...
Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.), renowned for its applications in environmental, industrial, and medicinal fields, is critically evaluated in this comprehensive review focusing on the impacts of chemical and organic fertilizers on its cultivation. As hemp re-emerges as a crop of economic significance, the choice between chemical and organic fertilization methods plays a crucial role in determining not only yield but also the quality and sustainability of production. This article examines the botanical characteristics of hemp, optimal growth conditions, and the essential biochemical processes for its cultivation. A detailed comparative analysis is provided, revealing that chemical fertilizers, while increasing yield by up to 20% compared to organic options, may compromise the concentration of key phytochemicals such as cannabidiol by approximately 10%, highlighting a trade-off between yield and product quality. The review presents quantitative assessments of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) from both fertilizer types, noting that K significantly influences the synthesis of terpenes and cannabinoids, making it the most impactful element in the context of medicinal and aromatic hemp varieties. Optimal rates and timing of application for these nutrients are discussed, with a focus on maximizing efficiency during the flowering stage, where nutrient uptake directly correlates with cannabinoid production. Furthermore, the challenges associated with the U.S. industrial hemp market are addressed, noting that reducing production costs and improving processing infrastructure is essential for sustaining industry growth, especially given the slow expansion in fiber and cannabidiol markets due to processing bottlenecks. The review concludes that while chemical fertilizers may offer immediate agronomic benefits, transitioning towards organic practices is essential for long-term environmental sustainability and market viability. The future of the hemp industry, while promising, will depend heavily on advancements in genetic engineering, crop management strategies, and regulatory frameworks that better support sustainable cultivation practices. This nuanced approach is vital for the industry to navigate the complex trade-offs between productivity, environmental health, and economic viability in the global market.