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Determination by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry of the cannabinoids present in Cannabis sativa L. in powdered form
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Field studies on cannabis cultivation have provided socio-economic data relating to, inter alia, production, yield and income. But only laboratory analyses of cannabis plants can provide information on their chemical composition and their levels of psychoactive constituents, thus enabling them to be classed as a drug type or a fibre type. The prese...
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Abstract Background Currently, an increasing demand of cannabis-derived products for recreational and medical use is observed. Therefore, the reliable and fast quantification of cannabinoids in hemp samples is essential for the control of product from Cannabis sativa, L. strains. In general, gas chromatography (GC) is the method of choice for the q...
Cannabidiol (CBD), a nonpsychoactive cannabinoid, was found to be converted to 9α-hydroxyhexahydrocannabinol (9α-OH-HHC) and
8-hydroxy-iso-hexahydrocannabinol (8-OH-iso-HHC) together with Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), a psychoactive cannabinoid, and cannabinol in artificial gastric juice. These cannabinoids were identified by gas chromatography...
Recent analysis of the cannabinoid content of cannabis plants suggests a shift towards use of high potency plant material with high levels of Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and low levels of other phytocannabinoids, particularly cannabidiol (CBD). Use of this type of cannabis is thought by some to predispose to greater adverse outcomes on mental h...
Oral fluid (OF) is an accepted alternative biological matrix for drug treatment, workplace, and DUID (driving under the influence of drugs) investigations, but establishing the cannabinoid OF detection window and concentration cutoff criteria are important.
Cannabinoid concentrations were quantified in OF from chronic, daily cannabis smokers during...
Cannabis indica was collected from five different localities of Pakistan and analyzed for medicinally active compounds by GC-MS. The biologically active chemical compounds amongst the naturally occurring cannabinoids are delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) which were present in all samples in high percentage. The highest percen...
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... In Morocco, hemp cultivation is concentrated mainly in the north, exactly in the provinces of Chefchaouen, Al Hoceima and Larache, which together account for more than 75% of production. The first two are considered traditional cannabis cultivation areas, while the Larache region is an extension area where this culture is more recent [25] Fig. 2. Moroccan marijuana is presumably related to indica marijuana in terms of origin. According to field research conducted in Bab Berred and K etama in 2004 and 2010, rural workers who have been growing cannabis for years and are actively involved in its trafficking had combined two cannabis strains: a Moroccan variety and a Pakistani variety, which gives the resin a slightly more golden hue [26]. ...
Throughout history, medicinal and aromatic plants have been used extensively to cure a variety of ailments. This article provides a comprehensive overview of Cannabis sativa, specifically focusing on its legislative status, decriminalization, phytochemistry, antimicrobial activity, and safety. The study begins by briefly outlining the plant's history, including its cultivation, harvesting, and storage methods. The review analyzes extensively the antimicrobial properties of Cannabis sativa and its derivatives, specifically examining their reported antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, and antiparasitic capabilities, which have been documented in databases such as Scopus, ScienceDirect, PubMed, and Web of Science. The paper also discusses trends in studies about the plant object of the study, the different bioactive compounds that were identified in the plant (phenolic acids, flavonoids, alkaloids, cannabinoids, and terpenes), and safe consumption in several cannabis-based products including candies, desserts, wine and as food flavoring. Furthermore, this study has reported information about the legalization and decriminalization of cannabis use across the globe with a specific focus on Morocco because it has the largest cultivated area of C. sativa plant. However, some substances with potential antimicrobial properties were not investigated in this review due to the lack of data on their activity. The authors hope that their efforts will inspire future studies on the therapeutic uses of Cannabis sativa and its derivatives, ultimately leading to improved health outcomes.
... Cannabis is now the most widely farmed, trafficked, and misused narcotics in the world because of its propensity to have a significant healthrelated effect, change sensory perception and cre-ate ecstasy and euphoria (Gonçalves et al., 2020;Papastylianou et al., 2018). According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) World Drug Report 2005, cannabis cultivation is common throughout Africa, the Americas, Asia, and Europe, with a total production of 47,000 tons of cannabis in 2004 (Stambouli et al., 2005). Subsequent utilization in between overall populace visualizes an accumulation of young adults and teenagers (20-24 years old), varying from 2% to 5% of the populace (in 2010, there were approximately 13 million cannabis-dependent people); however, the most significant number (10-13%) are recorded in North America (Gonçalves et al., 2020). ...
... Cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.: Cannabinaceae) is a dioecious and dimorphic annual crop that is sexually differentiated and has an anemophilous pollination process (Amaducci et al., 2015;Edwards and Whittington, 1992;Islam et al., 2021;Small et al., 2003;Strzelczyk et al., 2021). They are herbaceous (non-woody plants with aerial portions that die after fruiting) and have apetalous blossoms (no corolla) (Andre et al., 2016;El-Sohly et al., 2017;Stambouli et al., 2005). Cannabis is a tall, erected plant with erected stems, an extremely quickly, short-day plant with a deep, fibrous tap root system that thrives on fertile, well-drained terrain with neutral to slightly alkaline clay loam or silt loam soils (Bonini et al., 2018;Farag and Kayser, 2017). ...
... Cannabis is a tall, erected plant with erected stems, an extremely quickly, short-day plant with a deep, fibrous tap root system that thrives on fertile, well-drained terrain with neutral to slightly alkaline clay loam or silt loam soils (Bonini et al., 2018;Farag and Kayser, 2017). The plant's height typically ranges between 60 cm for the minor kinds and 7 m for the tallest, and male plants outnumber female plants in most populations (Edwards and Whittington, 1992;Farag and Kayser, 2017;Stambouli et al., 2005). Furthermore, male plants are less branching and taller than female plants and have a dark green hue (Stambouli et al., 2005;Strzelczyk et al., 2021). ...
Cannabis sativa L. is an annual, deciduous, dimorphic, flowering plant that is distributed all over the world. Despite its tremendous and handy usage in medicinal and other areas, the cultivation, production, and trade of cannabis are illegal in most of the countries. It is so because of some of its harmful side effects on human health when consumed haphazardly or addictively. Following the declaration made by the UN Assembly, some countries, including the Republic of South Africa, Canada, Germany, Australia, Colombia, and Indonesia, have legalized the indoor cultivation and production of cannabis, as well as cannabis-based products. Cannabis can thrive in a wide range of climatic and ecological conditions. Cannabis can be propagated via seeds, cuttings, grafting, micropropagation, etc. The plants are mainly cultivated for their chemical constituents like tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol, cannabinol, etc., which are extracted from their dried flowers. This study illustrates the production technology, current legal status, and botanical characteristics of Cannabis sativa. Cite this article: Yadav SPS, Ghimire NP, Lahutiya V. 2023. A comprehensive review of the production technology of Cannabis sativa L. with its current legal status and botanical features. Fundamental and Applied Agriculture 8(1&2): 458-474.
... Furthermore, in 2021, 73,000 ha of land in Morocco were used to grow cannabis. According to a study done by (Stambouli et al., 2005) on the Cultivation of Cannabis sativa L. in northern Morocco, the height of the plant varies between 60 cm for the smallest varieties and 7 m for the largest. Under optimum conditions, the average height is about 3 m. ...
Hempcrete is a bio-composite material with excellent environmental and thermal properties. This material has
been increasingly adopted in Europe as an alternative to concrete and traditional insulation. However, hemp
hurds, as the raw materials for hempcrete, are discarded in the world’s largest producer (Morocco) and
considered biomass waste due mainly to their association with marijuana production. Thus, research on
hempcrete remained limited in Morocco, with fewer stakeholders aware of the benefits of hempcrete in green
buildings. The objective of this paper is to assess the potential use of Moroccan hemp biomass in the construction
industry using a life-cycle assessment comparison of a residential house in Marrakech (Morocco) with three
different exterior walls systems, two insulated conventional wall systems (i.e., double hollow clay brick (DHB),
composite wall (CW) with extruded polystyrene (XPS) insulation), and a bio-composite material (i.e., hempcrete)
to identify environmentally preferable wall systems. Our study demonstrated that hempcrete is advantageous
over other comparable conventional wall systems in terms of embodied energy and performs best in terms of the
environmental performance associated with its entire life cycle achieving relatively low carbon emissions
(484.42 tCO2) compared to insulated DHB and CW systems (546.27 tCO2 and 546.55 tCO2 for DHB and CW,
respectively) over a lifetime of 100 years. Significant savings (i.e., 61.85–62.13 tCO2 if hempcrete is used instead
of DHB and CW) can be made from the exterior wall choice for a single house. These savings become much more
significant if scaled up to the national level of Moroccan homes. Consequently, by exploiting the hemp biomass
currently available in Morocco, results show a reduction of 1.91 MtCO2–1.92 MtCO2, equivalent to 2.81%–2.83%
of overall Moroccan emissions. Thus, strong policy support and hemp legalization in Moroccan are essential to
boost and expand hempcrete utilization for a greener construction industry
... 6 Cannabis cultivation extends back to the 17th century in Morocco, notably in the central Rif mountain, in the north of the country. 7 C. sativa contains 104 cannabinoids, categorized into 11 classes (Table 1), and 126 noncannabinoid components belonging to 8 distinct chemical classes: Flavonoids, Steroids, Phenanthrenes, Fatty acids, Spiroindans, Nitrogenous compounds, Xanthones, and Biphenyls. [8][9][10] Several therapeutic possibilities, including repurposed pharmaceuticals and ab initio compounds, have been presented, such as MLN-4760, a cell-permeable, highly selective, and potent inhibitor (IC50 = 0.44 nM) of the ACE2 receptor. ...
The emergence of a novel coronavirus that later on rendered a global pandemic, caused desperation within the communities and drove increased interest in exploring medicinal plant-based therapeutics to treat and prevent severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) virus infections. Many medicinal plants have been reported to have antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory effects that hinder, cure, or ease the symptoms of COVID-19 infection. This exploratory study seeks to dock the active components of Cannabis sativa, a natural plant with several pharmacological and biological properties, with the angiotensin-converting enzyme II (ACE2) receptor. A total of 3 C. sativa active components have been found to bind to the ACE2 protein active site and could inhibit spike binding, although they do not compete directly with the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of SARS-CoV-2. 6-Prenylapigenin, cannabivarin (CBN-C3), and Δ8-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid-A (Δ8-THCA) have a greater affinity (-8.3, -8.3, and -8.0 kcal/mol, respectively) and satisfactory interaction with ACE2 than its inhibitor MLN-4760 (-7.1 kcal/mol). These potential drugs with higher affinity for the ACE2 receptor and adequate absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity (ADMET) values are candidates for treating or preventing SARS-CoV-2 infections. In vitro and in vivo investigations are needed to evaluate further the efficacy and toxicity of these hit compounds.
... Nevertheless, there is an extensive variation on the elemental content, including toxic metal and metalloid content, among different cannabis plants, depending on where the plants are grown [5]. It is primarily the toxicity of certain metals and metalloids, such as arsenic and lead, that make elemental investigations of cannabis varieties an area of paramount importance, but also a number of other important considerations such as the characterization or association of a particular cannabis sample with its origin area, and the help of law-enforcing agencies of countries that prohibit the plant to trace the source of the drug [6,7]. Cannabis-containing toxic metals and metalloids that are consumed in combustive form can be of a great health danger as this toxicity in the human body takes place via the production of reactive oxygen species and free radicals, which can damage enzymes, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids, and cause cancer and neurological issues [8]. ...
For hundreds of years, cannabis has been one of the most known cultivated plants due to its variety of uses, which include as a psychoactive drug, as well as for medicinal activity. Although prohibiting cannabis products, the countries of the African continent are the largest producers of cannabis in the world; a fact that makes the trafficking of cannabis-based illicit drugs a high priority for local law enforcement authorities. The latter are exceedingly interested in the use of chemical analyses for facilitating quantification, identification, and tracing of the origin of seized cannabis samples. Targeting these goals, and focusing on the country of Ghana, the present study used inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) for the determination of 12 elements (Pb, Cu, Ca, Mg, Mn, Zn, Cd, As, Hg, Fe, Na, and K) in cannabis seized by Ghana’s law enforcement authorities and soils of cannabis farms. Furthermore, multivariate analysis was applied to distinguish among different cannabis farms and match them with the samples. As a result, 22 seized cannabis samples and 12 other cannabis samples with their respective soils were analyzed to reveal considerable As and Pb concentrations. As and Pb levels in cannabis were found up to 242 ppb for As and 854 ppb for Pb. Multivariate analysis was applied for separating different cannabis farms and seized samples based on elemental analysis, evidently linking the seized samples with two Ghana regions.
... Mechanical grinding-activation in an intensity planetary vibrational mill [62,63], ball mill [55], knife mill [64] or freeze mill [65] are also applied. Instead of drying, fresh cannabis plant material can be frozen with liquid nitrogen and crushed [66,67] or frozen, lyophilised at −50 • C and grounded by hand [68] or in a mill [69]. Comparison of coarse homogenization by sieving through a 1-mm mesh and fine homogenization with a ball mill revealed better extraction efficiency for CBDA and THCA for the finely powdered plant material, and no difference for the neutral phytocannabinoids (CBD, ∆ 9 -THC) [55]. ...
... CCl 4 (later evaporated and extracts reconstituted in chloroform) [131] MeCN/MeOH (8:2, v/v) [132] hexane/isopropanol (9:1, v/v) [57,94,106,133] hexane/EtAc (9:1, v/v), (7:3, v/v), (6:4, v/v) [54,57,66,94,104] hexane/CHCl 3 (1:1, v/v) [134,135] MeOH/CHCl 3 (4:1, v/v) [48,136] MeOH/CHCl 3 (9:1, v/v), (99:1, v/v) [57,67,86,106,137] MeOH/hexane (9:1, v/v) [138] petroleum ether/MeOH (9: ...
... KOH in MeOH and hexane/EtAc (9:1, v/v) [139] IS (tribenzylamine) in 96% EtOH [57] IS (tribenzylamine) in MeCN [140] IS (nonadecane) in EtOH [138] IS (diphenylhydramine) in EtOH [74] IS (4-androstene-3,17-dione) in EtOH [9,137] IS (docosane) in petroleum ether [128,141] IS (nonadecane) in MeOH/CHCl 3 (9:1, v/v) [67] IS (squalane) in hexane [76,89,142] IS (chrysene-d 12 ) in hexane [71] IS (ketamine hydrochloride) in MeCN [124] IS (4-androstene-3,17-dione) in MeOH/CHCl 3 (9:1, v/v) [9,75,86,87,[143][144][145] Absolute EtOH is the most preferred organic solvent for maceration and LLE due to its great affinity for phytocannabinoid structure [54,115,146] that leads to high extraction efficiencies. EtOH is, however, known to co-extract significant amount of pigments and ballast from cannabis plant material, much more than CHCl 3 , enhancing matrix interferences [44]. ...
Cannabis is gaining increasing attention due to the high pharmacological potential and updated legislation authorizing multiple uses. The development of time- and cost-efficient analytical methods is of crucial importance for phytocannabinoid profiling. This review aims to capture the versatility of analytical methods for phytocannabinoid profiling of cannabis and cannabis-based products in the past four decades (1980–2021). The thorough overview of more than 220 scientific papers reporting different analytical techniques for phytocannabinoid profiling points out their respective advantages and drawbacks in terms of their complexity, duration, selectivity, sensitivity and robustness for their specific application, along with the most widely used sample preparation strategies. In particular, chromatographic and spectroscopic methods, are presented and discussed. Acquired knowledge of phytocannabinoid profile became extremely relevant and further enhanced chemotaxonomic classification, cultivation set-ups examination, association of medical and adverse health effects with potency and/or interplay of certain phytocannabinoids and other active constituents, quality control (QC), and stability studies, as well as development and harmonization of global quality standards. Further improvement in phytocannabinoid profiling should be focused on untargeted analysis using orthogonal analytical methods, which, joined with cheminformatics approaches for compound identification and MSLs, would lead to the identification of a multitude of new phytocannabinoids.
... Most cannabis is generally grown outdoors in Africa, with a few exceptions of greenhouse cultivation in South Africa. In Morocco, there is a widespread use of traditional and modern agricultural methods in cannabis growing (Stambouli et al. 2005). Most of the agricultural land is not irrigated but rain-fed. ...
Hemp is a crop that in recent years has received renewed attention and been cultivated in numerous countries after having been abandoned by many during the twentieth century. This ‘rebirth’ is due to numerous factors: its favorable agronomical characteristics, its image of being a sustainable crop, and the plasticity of the products it can provide. However, due to its absence for a long time, there is a lack of expert knowledge on cultivating hemp. There is a lack of scientific knowledge regarding the specificities of its biology, and the strong interaction between genotype and environment remains a limiting factor of hemp cultivation, affecting both the yield and quality of the biomass produced. In this chapter, we have discussed the ins and outs of the cultivation of hemp through a scientific prism to address the principal factors, environmental and genotypic, that drive the agronomical characteristics of a hemp crop. Thereafter, we have focussed on the best crop management practices for optimizing hemp cultivation in terms of yield and quality parameters of the different fractions of the biomass that hemp can provide.KeywordsAgronomyCrop managementCultivationEcophysiologyIndustrial hemp
... Most cannabis is generally grown outdoors in Africa, with a few exceptions of greenhouse cultivation in South Africa. In Morocco, there is a widespread use of traditional and modern agricultural methods in cannabis growing (Stambouli et al. 2005). Most of the agricultural land is not irrigated but rain-fed. ...
Some African countries have decriminalized cannabis production for medicinal purposes. This has resulted in the commercial cultivation of the once illegal crop from hidden areas to either indoor or outdoor gardens. Cannabis health and socio-economic effects have been widely researched while ignoring its environmental impacts on commercial-scale cultivation. The extensive production methods have both negative and positive impacts on the environment. It was established that though cannabis production has been legalized in a few African countries and thus grown extensively, it is still illegal in most countries and cultivated in hidden fields in forests and other public lands. Indoor cannabis cultivation involves manipulating light, humidity, temperature, and other factors to optimal levels. Cannabis cultivation has beneficial effects (soil improvement, bio-economy development, soil moisture maintenance, control of weeds emergence, organic matter accumulation) and adverse effects (loss and fragmentation of habitats, grading and burying of streams; sedimentation, eutrophication, water contamination, and greenhouse gas emissions) on the environment. Cannabis is a high-value crop that can improve national economies through exports and the livelihoods of individual farmers at the local level, despite the adverse impacts it may have on the environment. Most studies on the environmental effects of cannabis cultivation have been conducted in Europe and North America. There is thus still a gap in this aspect in Africa. Given the double-edged effects of cannabis cultivation, it is pertinent that scientists address the environmental effects of cannabis cultivation in Africa, and design strategies to minimize the risks associated with its cultivation, and inform the development of regulations for the growing cannabis industry in Africa. This review focuses on cultivation methods, physiological factors for growth, and the effects of cannabis growing on the environment. Also, the review deals with how to increase the yields and quality of different varieties of cannabis.KeywordsAfricaCultivationCannabisEnvironment impactPhysiological factors
... According to (Chebli et al., 2018), about 1185 ha of forest ecosystem in the north part of Morocco is destroyed by fires annually (43% of the total burned forest in Morocco). Though restoration efforts led by the National Forestry Conservation Agency may offset these losses, forests have been also destroyed by various human activities, for example, forest resources are exploited for other purposes, like cannabis cultivation, collection of fuelwood, and goat grazing (Chebli et al., 2020;Stambouli et al., 2005). Also, the north of Morocco experiencing rapid population growth, with a total population of approximately 3.2 million in 2014 Fig. 1. ...
Forest fire disaster is currently the subject of intense research worldwide. The development of accurate strategies to prevent potential impacts and minimize the occurrence of disastrous events as much as possible requires modeling and forecasting severe conditions. In this study, we developed five new hybrid machine learning algorithms namely, Frequency Ratio-Multilayer Perceptron (FR-MLP), Frequency Ratio-Logistic Regression (FR-LR), Frequency Ratio-Classification and Regression Tree (FR-CART), Frequency Ratio-Support Vector Machine (FR-SVM), and Frequency Ratio-Random Forest (FR-RF), for mapping forest fire susceptibility in the north of Morocco. To this end, a total of 510 points of historic forest fires as the forest fire inventory map and 10 independent causal factors including elevation, slope, aspect, distance to roads, distance to residential areas, land use, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), rainfall, temperature, and wind speed were used. The area under the receiver operating characteristics (ROC) curves (AUC) was computed to assess the effectiveness of the models. The results of conducting proposed models indicated that RF-FR achieved the highest performance (AUC = 0.989), followed by SVM-FR (AUC = 0.959), MLP-FR (AUC = 0.858), CART-FR (AUC = 0.847), LR-FR (AUC = 0.809) in the forecasting of the forest fire. The outcome of this research as a prediction map of forest fire risk areas can provide crucial support for the management of Mediterranean forest ecosystems. Moreover, the results demonstrate that these novel developed hybrid models can increase the accuracy and performance of forest fire susceptibility studies and the approach can be applied to other areas.
... [12] CBG is the first identified cannabinoid, [14] with bacteriological effects and no psych activity. [15] Moreover, CBD can antagonize THC effects via GPR55 receptors, which are activated by THC and blocked by CBD. [16] CBD is the next-best phytocannabinoid after THC that could reduce anxiety and the other unpleasant psychological side effects of THC. ...
Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.), belongs to the Cannabaceae family. It is very rich in chemical constituents, especially the cannabinoids which has not been reported in any other plant, and has broad pharmacological properties. Hemp as a multi‐purpose crop is a good source of fibers, seed, fixed and volatile oil. It is known that the cannabinoid content of hemp is related to genetic factors, as well as plant’s growth stages and environmental factors such as latitude, altitude, weather, particularly moisture availability and nutrient supply during the growing season. The present study was designed to produce hemp that contains allowable concentration of THC (<.3%) by comparing different varieties of hemp, different stages of plant growth, and different geographical locations where it was planted. To achieve this, seeds of two native populations from Iran (Fars and Yazd Provinces) and one foreign variety from France (Fedora17, as an industrial hemp cultivar) with its progenies (Fedora17‐2) were cultivated in 3 research fields (Gilan, Golestan and Alborz provinces) in Iran. The following plant materials were extracted with methanol/chloroform and analyzed by HPLC: foliage in the vegetative stage, inflorescent in the flowering stage, inflorescent of seeds in the seeding stage and the mature seed. The THC concentration of Fedora17 (Fed17) in all three geographical locations was found to be under 0.03% or even non‐detectable. Same result was also observed in its progenies (Fed17‐2), indicating stability of the trait in this cultivar. The THC concentration of the Yazd variety that was planted in Alborz and Gilan regions was less than 0.080% in all growth stages. The female flowers planted in Golestan, showed a THC concentration of 1.029% which was more than the allowed THC concentration of <.3%. The THC concentration in all growth stages of all of the different varieties planted varied from 0 to 1.392%. The above results indicates that the type of cannabinoid produced depends on the difference in genetic prosperities of the different seed types as well as the growth stage in which the plant material was extracted. On the other hand, the climate and the region in which the seeds were planted had little influence on the THC concentration.
