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Determination by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry of the cannabinoids present in Cannabis sativa L. in powdered form
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Field studies on cannabis cultivation have provided socio-economic data relating to, inter alia, production, yield and income. But only laboratory analyses of cannabis plants can provide information on their chemical composition and their levels of psychoactive constituents, thus enabling them to be classed as a drug type or a fibre type. The prese...
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Abstract Background Currently, an increasing demand of cannabis-derived products for recreational and medical use is observed. Therefore, the reliable and fast quantification of cannabinoids in hemp samples is essential for the control of product from Cannabis sativa, L. strains. In general, gas chromatography (GC) is the method of choice for the q...
Cannabidiol (CBD), a nonpsychoactive cannabinoid, was found to be converted to 9α-hydroxyhexahydrocannabinol (9α-OH-HHC) and
8-hydroxy-iso-hexahydrocannabinol (8-OH-iso-HHC) together with Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), a psychoactive cannabinoid, and cannabinol in artificial gastric juice. These cannabinoids were identified by gas chromatography...
Recent analysis of the cannabinoid content of cannabis plants suggests a shift towards use of high potency plant material with high levels of Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and low levels of other phytocannabinoids, particularly cannabidiol (CBD). Use of this type of cannabis is thought by some to predispose to greater adverse outcomes on mental h...
Oral fluid (OF) is an accepted alternative biological matrix for drug treatment, workplace, and DUID (driving under the influence of drugs) investigations, but establishing the cannabinoid OF detection window and concentration cutoff criteria are important.
Cannabinoid concentrations were quantified in OF from chronic, daily cannabis smokers during...
Cannabis indica was collected from five different localities of Pakistan and analyzed for medicinally active compounds by GC-MS. The biologically active chemical compounds amongst the naturally occurring cannabinoids are delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) which were present in all samples in high percentage. The highest percen...
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... People often combine cannabis with tobacco and smoke it, a cultural practice that stretches back to the 7th century (Blickman, 2017). Historically, cannabis has also had medicinal and religious applications (Stambouli et al., 2005). In traditional Moroccan pharmacopoeia, cannabisbased preparations are used for abortion, treating respiratory ailments, healing wounds, and managing diarrhea in infants, as well as in hair care, improving vision, and as anthelmintic and anti-vomiting agents (Merzouki & Mesa, 1999). ...
... These provinces are Chefchaouen (50%), Al Hoceima (17%), and Larache (9%). While Chefchaouen and Al Hoceima are known for being traditional areas for growing cannabis (kif ), the Larache region is a newer addition to this crop (Stambouli et al., 2005). ...
... For the Moroccan government, this decision presents an opportunity to address long-standing grievances among cannabis growers, who feel disconnected from the central government. These three regions (Al Houceima, Taounate, and Chefchaouen) account for the majority of cannabis production in Morocco, including illicit crops (Stambouli et al., 2005). Through this initiative, the government aims to reduce poverty by integrating cannabis production ino the legal economy. ...
Research on cannabis and its bioactive derivatives, including cannabinoids, non-cannabinoids, and extracts, has significantly increased in recent years due to their potential therapeutic applications as demonstrated by numerous published studies. Although there is evidence of the potential efficacy of cannabinoid and non-cannabinoid compounds from cannabis in the treatment of various diseases and syndromes, further research is required to mitigate the potential damage that could result from the excessive use of cannabinoid products, particularly tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), such as psychotropic effects, addiction, cognitive deficits, cardiovascular problems, and impacts on mental health. This review describes phytochemical and biological studies on cannabis grown in Morocco, utilizing databases such as SciFinder, ScienceDirect, Scopus, Google Scholar, and PubMed to provide updated data on cannabis in Morocco. The findings of this research aim to enable investors, economic operators, researchers, and policymakers to better understand the current state of cannabis in Morocco, thereby promoting industry growth and cannabis-related innovation. Additionally, this paper includes a brief discussion on the legalization of cannabis in Morocco, highlighting the new opportunities for investment in medical cannabis. This study also underscores that much remains to be explored regarding Moroccan cannabis, from the isolation of bioactive compounds and pre-clinical studies to clinical trials and the mass production of approved cannabis-based medicines. Furthermore, the findings are intended to inform key stakeholders about the current state of cannabis in Morocco, fostering industry growth and innovation.
... Cannabis Sativa L., alternatively known as "marijuana" or "bhang", a medicinal, aromatic, and annual herb of the Cannabaceae family, is a hemp plant that grows widely throughout the world, in temperate and tropical countries (Stambouli et al., 2005). In Morocco, several cultivars such as 'Beldiya', 'Mexicana' and 'Critical Plus' are distributed throughout the traditional growing areas of Chefchaouen and Al Hoceima À in the central Rif À and in recently designated extension areas north-west of Tetouan and Larache and south-east of Al Hoceima (El Bakali et al., 2022;Stambouli et al., 2005). ...
... Cannabis Sativa L., alternatively known as "marijuana" or "bhang", a medicinal, aromatic, and annual herb of the Cannabaceae family, is a hemp plant that grows widely throughout the world, in temperate and tropical countries (Stambouli et al., 2005). In Morocco, several cultivars such as 'Beldiya', 'Mexicana' and 'Critical Plus' are distributed throughout the traditional growing areas of Chefchaouen and Al Hoceima À in the central Rif À and in recently designated extension areas north-west of Tetouan and Larache and south-east of Al Hoceima (El Bakali et al., 2022;Stambouli et al., 2005). The chemical composition of Cannabis Sativa L. is very complex; in fact, several chemical classes have been identified in plants, including terpene-based essential oils, flavonoids, dihydrostilbenes sugars, fatty acids, and phenolic compounds (Pellati et al., 2018). ...
... The chemical composition of Cannabis Sativa L. is very complex; in fact, several chemical classes have been identified in plants, including terpene-based essential oils, flavonoids, dihydrostilbenes sugars, fatty acids, and phenolic compounds (Pellati et al., 2018). However, the most interesting constituents are the cannabinoids found in the leaves and concentrated in the bracts and resin (Stambouli et al., 2005). Many terpenephenolic compounds were found in the cannabis essential oil including cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), D 9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (D 9 -THC), and their acids (Pellati et al., 2018). ...
Cannabis Sativa L. (Cannabaceae) exerts biological effects through its bioactive compounds. Cannabis Sativa L. essential oil (CSEO) is known to have antibacterial properties that can accelerate wound healing. The present study aimed to evaluate the wound healing efficacy of freshly extracted essential oils from Cannabis Sativa L. hydrodistillated from the leaves of the plant. CSEO was analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Neurobehavioral, histological, and biochemical analyses were performed to examine the effects of CSEO application in an incisional wound model. CSEO demonstrated anti-inflammatory activity by reducing neutrophil levels in blood and skin tissue. CSEO acts by accelerating re-epithelialization and granulation tissue formation. Furthermore, CSEO restored incision-induced neurobehavioral changes by reducing cortisol levels. Increased cortisol levels are associated with inhibition of the healing process, anxiolytic effects, and increased vertical locomotor activity in treated animals. The effect of CSEO in the healing process makes it worthy of recommendation as a therapeutic agent for the treatment of skin wounds.
... Qualitative analysis of Moroccan local cannabis using high-performance liquid chromatography revealed the presence of a significant level of the CBD molecule (Stambouli et al. 2007). Consequently, the possibilities of its incorporation into industrialization or breeding programs for medical and therapeutic purposes are promising. ...
Morocco has a long history of domesticating cannabis and refuges a local Beldia population, which lacks detailed information on genetic diversity. In this study, the genetic diversity of cannabis grown in four Moroccan regions was assessed with six genomic simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers involving two cannabis populations: the local Beldia and the introduced Critical cultivar. A total of 111 alleles were detected, with an average of 18.5 alleles/locus. Several genetic diversity indices were measured for both populations and showed the superiority of Beldia with a high genetic diversity compared to Critical. The analysis of molecular variance showed that genetic variability was remarkably observed within individuals (65%) and, to a lesser extent, within and among populations (19% and 16%, respectively). Principle coordinates analysis, unrooted neighbor-joining tree, and genetic structure profiles confirmed that Beldia and Critical are genetically distant and belong to two different gene pools. The gene flow revealed the presence of a genetic exchange between the two populations, thus highlighting the need to protect the local genetic heritage of Morocco from potential genetic erosion through several conservation strategies.
... In this study, even if the HSC diets led to an increase of LC n-3 FAs (EPA, DPA, DHA), the MDA and lipid oxidation products decreased significantly. In accordance with Vispute et al. (2019), our results could be attributed to the bioactive compounds present in HS by-products, among which tochopherols, phenols and cannabidiol exert a strong antioxidant activity (Jiang et al. 2001;Stambouli et al. 2006;Konca et al. 2014;Liang et al. 2015). ...
Hemp seed cake (HSC) (Cannabis sativa L.) is a rich source of polyunsaturated fatty acids, high-quality proteins and essential amino acids. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of dietary inclusion of HSC on growth performance, meat quality traits, fatty acids profile and oxidative status, and intestinal morphology in slow-growing broilers. A total of 180 male slow-growing broilers were randomly assigned to one of three dietary treatments containing different levels of HSC: 0 (HSC0), 5 (HSC5) or 10% (HSC10). Birds were slaughtered at 49 days of age: breast and thigh muscles were analysed and duodenum mucosa histomorphological features were evaluated. Regardless the level of HSC inclusion, no differences among groups were found for performance and meat quality traits. The thigh and breast fatty acid profile were significantly improved in both HSC groups, with an increase of the long chain fatty acids of n-3 series and decrease of n-6/n-3 ratio. The HSC diets lowered the MDA concentration and lipid hydroperoxides in breast meat. Histomorphometrical analysis revealed a significant increase in villus height, surface area and villus/crypt ratio, with a decrease of crypt depth, suggesting that dietary supplementation with HSC may boost intestinal health status in poultry. In conclusion, dietary HSC did not affect performance, carcass traits and meat quality, while it positively influenced the lipid profile of meat, and improved the oxidative status and gut health, thus representing a valuable and sustainable alternative ingredient in broiler diet.
... In Morocco, hemp cultivation is concentrated mainly in the north, exactly in the provinces of Chefchaouen, Al Hoceima and Larache, which together account for more than 75% of production. The first two are considered traditional cannabis cultivation areas, while the Larache region is an extension area where this culture is more recent [25] Fig. 2. Moroccan marijuana is presumably related to indica marijuana in terms of origin. According to field research conducted in Bab Berred and K etama in 2004 and 2010, rural workers who have been growing cannabis for years and are actively involved in its trafficking had combined two cannabis strains: a Moroccan variety and a Pakistani variety, which gives the resin a slightly more golden hue [26]. ...
Throughout history, medicinal and aromatic plants have been used extensively to cure a variety of ailments. This article provides a comprehensive overview of Cannabis sativa, specifically focusing on its legislative status, decriminalization, phytochemistry, antimicrobial activity, and safety. The study begins by briefly outlining the plant's history, including its cultivation, harvesting, and storage methods. The review analyzes extensively the antimicrobial properties of Cannabis sativa and its derivatives, specifically examining their reported antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, and antiparasitic capabilities, which have been documented in databases such as Scopus, ScienceDirect, PubMed, and Web of Science. The paper also discusses trends in studies about the plant object of the study, the different bioactive compounds that were identified in the plant (phenolic acids, flavonoids, alkaloids, cannabinoids, and terpenes), and safe consumption in several cannabis-based products including candies, desserts, wine and as food flavoring. Furthermore, this study has reported information about the legalization and decriminalization of cannabis use across the globe with a specific focus on Morocco because it has the largest cultivated area of C. sativa plant. However, some substances with potential antimicrobial properties were not investigated in this review due to the lack of data on their activity. The authors hope that their efforts will inspire future studies on the therapeutic uses of Cannabis sativa and its derivatives, ultimately leading to improved health outcomes.
... Cannabis is now the most widely farmed, trafficked, and misused narcotics in the world because of its propensity to have a significant healthrelated effect, change sensory perception and cre-ate ecstasy and euphoria (Gonçalves et al., 2020;Papastylianou et al., 2018). According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) World Drug Report 2005, cannabis cultivation is common throughout Africa, the Americas, Asia, and Europe, with a total production of 47,000 tons of cannabis in 2004 (Stambouli et al., 2005). Subsequent utilization in between overall populace visualizes an accumulation of young adults and teenagers (20-24 years old), varying from 2% to 5% of the populace (in 2010, there were approximately 13 million cannabis-dependent people); however, the most significant number (10-13%) are recorded in North America (Gonçalves et al., 2020). ...
... Cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.: Cannabinaceae) is a dioecious and dimorphic annual crop that is sexually differentiated and has an anemophilous pollination process (Amaducci et al., 2015;Edwards and Whittington, 1992;Islam et al., 2021;Small et al., 2003;Strzelczyk et al., 2021). They are herbaceous (non-woody plants with aerial portions that die after fruiting) and have apetalous blossoms (no corolla) (Andre et al., 2016;El-Sohly et al., 2017;Stambouli et al., 2005). Cannabis is a tall, erected plant with erected stems, an extremely quickly, short-day plant with a deep, fibrous tap root system that thrives on fertile, well-drained terrain with neutral to slightly alkaline clay loam or silt loam soils (Bonini et al., 2018;Farag and Kayser, 2017). ...
... Cannabis is a tall, erected plant with erected stems, an extremely quickly, short-day plant with a deep, fibrous tap root system that thrives on fertile, well-drained terrain with neutral to slightly alkaline clay loam or silt loam soils (Bonini et al., 2018;Farag and Kayser, 2017). The plant's height typically ranges between 60 cm for the minor kinds and 7 m for the tallest, and male plants outnumber female plants in most populations (Edwards and Whittington, 1992;Farag and Kayser, 2017;Stambouli et al., 2005). Furthermore, male plants are less branching and taller than female plants and have a dark green hue (Stambouli et al., 2005;Strzelczyk et al., 2021). ...
Cannabis sativa L. is an annual, deciduous, dimorphic, flowering plant that is distributed all over the world. Despite its tremendous and handy usage in medicinal and other areas, the cultivation, production, and trade of cannabis are illegal in most of the countries. It is so because of some of its harmful side effects on human health when consumed haphazardly or addictively. Following the declaration made by the UN Assembly, some countries, including the Republic of South Africa, Canada, Germany, Australia, Colombia, and Indonesia, have legalized the indoor cultivation and production of cannabis, as well as cannabis-based products. Cannabis can thrive in a wide range of climatic and ecological conditions. Cannabis can be propagated via seeds, cuttings, grafting, micropropagation, etc. The plants are mainly cultivated for their chemical constituents like tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol, cannabinol, etc., which are extracted from their dried flowers. This study illustrates the production technology, current legal status, and botanical characteristics of Cannabis sativa.
... Furthermore, in 2021, 73,000 ha of land in Morocco were used to grow cannabis. According to a study done by (Stambouli et al., 2005) on the Cultivation of Cannabis sativa L. in northern Morocco, the height of the plant varies between 60 cm for the smallest varieties and 7 m for the largest. Under optimum conditions, the average height is about 3 m. ...
Hempcrete is a bio-composite material with excellent environmental and thermal properties. This material has
been increasingly adopted in Europe as an alternative to concrete and traditional insulation. However, hemp
hurds, as the raw materials for hempcrete, are discarded in the world’s largest producer (Morocco) and
considered biomass waste due mainly to their association with marijuana production. Thus, research on
hempcrete remained limited in Morocco, with fewer stakeholders aware of the benefits of hempcrete in green
buildings. The objective of this paper is to assess the potential use of Moroccan hemp biomass in the construction
industry using a life-cycle assessment comparison of a residential house in Marrakech (Morocco) with three
different exterior walls systems, two insulated conventional wall systems (i.e., double hollow clay brick (DHB),
composite wall (CW) with extruded polystyrene (XPS) insulation), and a bio-composite material (i.e., hempcrete)
to identify environmentally preferable wall systems. Our study demonstrated that hempcrete is advantageous
over other comparable conventional wall systems in terms of embodied energy and performs best in terms of the
environmental performance associated with its entire life cycle achieving relatively low carbon emissions
(484.42 tCO2) compared to insulated DHB and CW systems (546.27 tCO2 and 546.55 tCO2 for DHB and CW,
respectively) over a lifetime of 100 years. Significant savings (i.e., 61.85–62.13 tCO2 if hempcrete is used instead
of DHB and CW) can be made from the exterior wall choice for a single house. These savings become much more
significant if scaled up to the national level of Moroccan homes. Consequently, by exploiting the hemp biomass
currently available in Morocco, results show a reduction of 1.91 MtCO2–1.92 MtCO2, equivalent to 2.81%–2.83%
of overall Moroccan emissions. Thus, strong policy support and hemp legalization in Moroccan are essential to
boost and expand hempcrete utilization for a greener construction industry
... 6 Cannabis cultivation extends back to the 17th century in Morocco, notably in the central Rif mountain, in the north of the country. 7 C. sativa contains 104 cannabinoids, categorized into 11 classes (Table 1), and 126 noncannabinoid components belonging to 8 distinct chemical classes: Flavonoids, Steroids, Phenanthrenes, Fatty acids, Spiroindans, Nitrogenous compounds, Xanthones, and Biphenyls. [8][9][10] Several therapeutic possibilities, including repurposed pharmaceuticals and ab initio compounds, have been presented, such as MLN-4760, a cell-permeable, highly selective, and potent inhibitor (IC50 = 0.44 nM) of the ACE2 receptor. ...
The emergence of a novel coronavirus that later on rendered a global pandemic, caused desperation within the communities and drove increased interest in exploring medicinal plant-based therapeutics to treat and prevent severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) virus infections. Many medicinal plants have been reported to have antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory effects that hinder, cure, or ease the symptoms of COVID-19 infection. This exploratory study seeks to dock the active components of Cannabis sativa, a natural plant with several pharmacological and biological properties, with the angiotensin-converting enzyme II (ACE2) receptor. A total of 3 C. sativa active components have been found to bind to the ACE2 protein active site and could inhibit spike binding, although they do not compete directly with the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of SARS-CoV-2. 6-Prenylapigenin, cannabivarin (CBN-C3), and Δ8-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid-A (Δ8-THCA) have a greater affinity (-8.3, -8.3, and -8.0 kcal/mol, respectively) and satisfactory interaction with ACE2 than its inhibitor MLN-4760 (-7.1 kcal/mol). These potential drugs with higher affinity for the ACE2 receptor and adequate absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity (ADMET) values are candidates for treating or preventing SARS-CoV-2 infections. In vitro and in vivo investigations are needed to evaluate further the efficacy and toxicity of these hit compounds.
... Nevertheless, there is an extensive variation on the elemental content, including toxic metal and metalloid content, among different cannabis plants, depending on where the plants are grown [5]. It is primarily the toxicity of certain metals and metalloids, such as arsenic and lead, that make elemental investigations of cannabis varieties an area of paramount importance, but also a number of other important considerations such as the characterization or association of a particular cannabis sample with its origin area, and the help of law-enforcing agencies of countries that prohibit the plant to trace the source of the drug [6,7]. Cannabis-containing toxic metals and metalloids that are consumed in combustive form can be of a great health danger as this toxicity in the human body takes place via the production of reactive oxygen species and free radicals, which can damage enzymes, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids, and cause cancer and neurological issues [8]. ...
For hundreds of years, cannabis has been one of the most known cultivated plants due to its variety of uses, which include as a psychoactive drug, as well as for medicinal activity. Although prohibiting cannabis products, the countries of the African continent are the largest producers of cannabis in the world; a fact that makes the trafficking of cannabis-based illicit drugs a high priority for local law enforcement authorities. The latter are exceedingly interested in the use of chemical analyses for facilitating quantification, identification, and tracing of the origin of seized cannabis samples. Targeting these goals, and focusing on the country of Ghana, the present study used inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) for the determination of 12 elements (Pb, Cu, Ca, Mg, Mn, Zn, Cd, As, Hg, Fe, Na, and K) in cannabis seized by Ghana’s law enforcement authorities and soils of cannabis farms. Furthermore, multivariate analysis was applied to distinguish among different cannabis farms and match them with the samples. As a result, 22 seized cannabis samples and 12 other cannabis samples with their respective soils were analyzed to reveal considerable As and Pb concentrations. As and Pb levels in cannabis were found up to 242 ppb for As and 854 ppb for Pb. Multivariate analysis was applied for separating different cannabis farms and seized samples based on elemental analysis, evidently linking the seized samples with two Ghana regions.
... Mechanical grinding-activation in an intensity planetary vibrational mill [62,63], ball mill [55], knife mill [64] or freeze mill [65] are also applied. Instead of drying, fresh cannabis plant material can be frozen with liquid nitrogen and crushed [66,67] or frozen, lyophilised at −50 • C and grounded by hand [68] or in a mill [69]. Comparison of coarse homogenization by sieving through a 1-mm mesh and fine homogenization with a ball mill revealed better extraction efficiency for CBDA and THCA for the finely powdered plant material, and no difference for the neutral phytocannabinoids (CBD, ∆ 9 -THC) [55]. ...
... CCl 4 (later evaporated and extracts reconstituted in chloroform) [131] MeCN/MeOH (8:2, v/v) [132] hexane/isopropanol (9:1, v/v) [57,94,106,133] hexane/EtAc (9:1, v/v), (7:3, v/v), (6:4, v/v) [54,57,66,94,104] hexane/CHCl 3 (1:1, v/v) [134,135] MeOH/CHCl 3 (4:1, v/v) [48,136] MeOH/CHCl 3 (9:1, v/v), (99:1, v/v) [57,67,86,106,137] MeOH/hexane (9:1, v/v) [138] petroleum ether/MeOH (9: ...
... KOH in MeOH and hexane/EtAc (9:1, v/v) [139] IS (tribenzylamine) in 96% EtOH [57] IS (tribenzylamine) in MeCN [140] IS (nonadecane) in EtOH [138] IS (diphenylhydramine) in EtOH [74] IS (4-androstene-3,17-dione) in EtOH [9,137] IS (docosane) in petroleum ether [128,141] IS (nonadecane) in MeOH/CHCl 3 (9:1, v/v) [67] IS (squalane) in hexane [76,89,142] IS (chrysene-d 12 ) in hexane [71] IS (ketamine hydrochloride) in MeCN [124] IS (4-androstene-3,17-dione) in MeOH/CHCl 3 (9:1, v/v) [9,75,86,87,[143][144][145] Absolute EtOH is the most preferred organic solvent for maceration and LLE due to its great affinity for phytocannabinoid structure [54,115,146] that leads to high extraction efficiencies. EtOH is, however, known to co-extract significant amount of pigments and ballast from cannabis plant material, much more than CHCl 3 , enhancing matrix interferences [44]. ...
Cannabis is gaining increasing attention due to the high pharmacological potential and updated legislation authorizing multiple uses. The development of time- and cost-efficient analytical methods is of crucial importance for phytocannabinoid profiling. This review aims to capture the versatility of analytical methods for phytocannabinoid profiling of cannabis and cannabis-based products in the past four decades (1980–2021). The thorough overview of more than 220 scientific papers reporting different analytical techniques for phytocannabinoid profiling points out their respective advantages and drawbacks in terms of their complexity, duration, selectivity, sensitivity and robustness for their specific application, along with the most widely used sample preparation strategies. In particular, chromatographic and spectroscopic methods, are presented and discussed. Acquired knowledge of phytocannabinoid profile became extremely relevant and further enhanced chemotaxonomic classification, cultivation set-ups examination, association of medical and adverse health effects with potency and/or interplay of certain phytocannabinoids and other active constituents, quality control (QC), and stability studies, as well as development and harmonization of global quality standards. Further improvement in phytocannabinoid profiling should be focused on untargeted analysis using orthogonal analytical methods, which, joined with cheminformatics approaches for compound identification and MSLs, would lead to the identification of a multitude of new phytocannabinoids.
