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Details of vegetation composition and diversity parameters of tree layer in different land use patterns
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This study evaluated the impact of predominant land uses on the physico‐chemical and biological properties of soils along an altitudinal gradient in Indian Central Himalaya to enhance the scientific knowledge and identify suitable land use pattern. Soil samples were collected from six predominant agricultural land uses including (i) open cropland (...
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... ADL, only wild herbs were recorded. HGs were maintained throughout the year by seasonal vegetables (Table 1). ...Context 2
... tree density and diversity among different land use systems varied significantly (P < .05; Table S1a) Table S1b. ...Citations
... Research on the influence of nitrogen deposition on plants at the population level mainly concentrate on vegetation coverage [4], species diversity, community composition [5], community biomass [6] and the photosynthetic characteristics of plants [7]. Relevant research at the species level merely pertains to soil health, microbial biomass [8,9,10], studies on dry matter nynamics, vegetation structure, and ecological restoration [11,12,13] as well as phenology characteristics [14]. However, a systematic study on the influence of nitrogen deposition on plant life history is lacking, which without a clear elucidation of the specific effects of increased nitrogen deposition on plant growth and its influence on plant resource diversity. ...
Nitrogen deposition and precipitation are the topics of current global climate change, and also the major environmental factors influencing plant growth. This study utilized the ephemeral plant H. erectum, which is distributed in the Gurbantunggut Desert in northwest China, as the experimental material to analyze the influence of nitrogen deposition and water-nitrogen interaction treatment on the phenology, survival rate, plant traits, biomass accumulation, and seed dormancy of spring- and autumn-germinated plants. The research results indicate that increased nitrogen increases the survival rate of H. erectum spring- and autumn-germinated plants. There is no significant impact on phenological events. However, plant traits such as leaf number, leaf area, branch number, seed quantity, and biomass accumulation are all reduced. During the growth and development process, more biomass is allocated to reproductive organs, and result in the production of a large number of non-dormant seeds. Therefore, in arid and semi-arid ecosystems, nitrogen deposition plays a crucial role in the survival of plants and the rapid reproduction of offspring. After water-nitrogen interaction treatment, the survival rate of H. erectum spring- and autumn-germinated plants significantly increased. The main phenology (leafing date, first flowering date, last flowering date, fruiting date and withering date) were delayed, extending the life cycle of reproductive growth. Biomass accumulation in all organs increased with a same allocation trend, produce a large number of dormant seeds. Therefore, precipitation not only influences the biomass allocation of plants and regulates their nitrogen uptake, changes the growth mechanisms of plants in adverse environments.
... Traditional agroforestry systems (AFSs) such as agri-horti-silviculture, agri-silviculture and agrihorticulture (Parihaar et al. 2015;Bargali et al. 2019) been widely practised in rural areas of the Himalayan ecosystem (Padalia et al. 2018) for fulfilling the basic needs of livelihoods. In addition, now the (Dhillon et al. 2013;Akwada et al. 2016;Goswami et al. 2020;Singh et al. 2021b;Kumar et al. 2023;Singh et al. 2024 Verma et al. 2023;Rajput et al. 2024), no comparative study has evaluated different soil carbon fractions stored in soils under different traditional and newly established AFSs in mid-hills agro-ecosystems of the northwestern Himalayas. ...
The soil organic carbon is critical in determining the sustainability, ecosystem services and atmospheric stability of any land use system. In this study, SOC and nitrogen pools across ten types of land use systems (LUSs) in the mid-hills of the northwestern Himalayas were estimated, namely sole cropping (SC), natural forest (NF), agri-silvi-horticulture (ASH), agri-silviculture (AS), fruit-based agroforestry system (FB), fodder-based agroforestry system (FTB), bamboo-based agroforestry system (BB), melia-based agroforestry system (MB), poplar-based agroforestry system (PB), and silvi-pasture (SP) at three different soil depths i.e., 0–20 cm (D1), 20–40 cm (D2) and 40–60 cm (D3). Based on the labile and non-labile C fractions, various indices like lability index, carbon pool index and carbon management index were worked out. It was found that the active carbon pool was greater in NF (4.30 mg g⁻¹), followed by the FB (4.17 mg g⁻¹). The maximum passive carbon pool was found in NF (13.01 mg g⁻¹), followed by the SP system (11.41 mg g⁻¹). The SP system had the lowest value of lability index (LI:0.24), and the highest (LI:1.35) was reported from the FB. The maximum carbon management index (CMI) was also reported in NF (184.08), followed by the BB (161.35). Ammonical and nitrate nitrogen were reported maximum in NF, i.e., 6.93 mg kg⁻¹ and 4.34 mg kg⁻¹, respectively. On average, the carbon and nitrogen pool declined at deeper soil depth, irrespective of the land use. Findings of this study demonstrated that agroforestry LUSs in the north-western Himalayas have a remarkable ability to sequester significant amounts of carbon and nitrogen in the soil thus provide a solid basis for adopting agroforestry practices to promote eco-friendly agriculture in a sensitive Himalayan region.
... The parent rocks, vegetation cover, and land use vary within a short distance, changing the soil properties. The Himalayan region has very dissected landscapes, and bio climates of the region change rapidly due to the altitude and may vary within short distances, resulting in a pronounced heterogeneity of soil type [42,43] therefore manipulating the allocation of flora, their character, and production [9,44]. The morphological characters of fruits and seeds are randomly distributed among the seed sources. ...
The introduction of tree species in the agroforestry system is important to enhance the economy, ecology, and sustainability of the farmers. Grewia optiva is a multipurpose tree species for the attributes of the 5F (fodder, fuel, fibre, fruit, and fertilizers) in traditional agroforestry systems of Garhwal Himalaya. The farmers of the north-west Himalayan region, India, most prefer this species for growing in their agroforestry lands, as this species is highly used by the local people of the region because of its best quality fodder, fuel, and fiber. Approximate one kg fruits (100–150 g fruits per tree and subsequently from five trees for each seed source) of G. optiva were collected from ten different seed sources in Garhwal Himalaya. After seed extraction, seed morphometric traits were measured in the laboratory and analysed in RBD. Extracted seeds from each seed source were sown in the nursery under different nursery growing media in a factorial randomized block design to assess germination parameters. The morphological attributes of fruits, seeds with their variability, and seedling emergence under different germination media were statistically analyzed for analysis of variance. Fruits and seed morphological traits were significant (p < 0.01) among ten seed sources. Germination parameters were significantly varied among different seed sources and different nursery-growing media. The coefficient of variation, i.e. genetic, phenotypic, and environmental, also varied significantly for different fruit, and seed morphological characters. Seed weight was the most variable character among different fruit and seed morphological traits. The maximum emergence of seedlings was recorded in cocopeat media (71%) while the lowest was recorded in sand: soil: FYM media (38%). The overall study indicated that the Dugadda, Karnaprayag, and Paukhal seed sources were superior for fruit, seed size, and germination attributes. The cocopeat media is recommended to obtain the optimum and uniform seedling emergence of G. optiva for growing quality planting material.
... On the other hand, native forests had higher contributions from pools that were more stable and resistant to change, such as NLC, which was bigger in EF than in AS and HS (36)(37)(38) carbon sources. This stability is vital for the enduring storage of carbon, and it underlines the degrada- tion found in AS and HS, where unstable VLC predominates and becomes susceptible to additional disturbance and CO2 releases (39,40). ...
Alterations in land patterns in Kolli Hills(KH) of the Eastern Ghats, Tamil Nadu, transitioning from native ecosystems to various land uses, have notably diminished soil carbon concentrations. To measure this reduction, the Carbon Management Index (CMI) was evaluated across key land-use categories, including Agricultural System (AS), Horticultural System (HS), Plantation System (PS), Thorn Forest (TF), Deciduous Forest (DF), and Evergreen Forest (EF). The analysis focused on Total Organic Carbon (TOC), Total Carbon (TC), Total Inorganic Carbon (TIC), and carbon pools with varying degrees of lability, including less labile carbon (LLC), labile carbon (LC), very labile carbon (VLC), and non-labile carbon (NLC). The findings indicated that EF's carbon pools were markedly higher (p < 0.05) than AS and HS. The contribution of LC, VLC, LLC, and NLC to TOC was highest in EF and DF, while it was lowest in AS and HS. The TOC at 15 cm depth was highest in the surface soils of EF (106.17 g kg-1), with a gradual decline in concentration with increasing depth. This highlights carbon pool degradation from land-use change, quantified by the CMI. When EF was used as the reference ecosystem, the CMI was higher in DF (51.93) and TF (45.69) at a 30 cm depth, while AS (10.75) and HS (12.46) showed a much lower CMI. These findings highlight the need to implement effective carbon management strategies in KH to restore soil vitality and safeguard biodiversity.
... Often, compared to monoculture planting, intercropping boosts plant growth and elevates the efficiency of resource utilization, including water and sunlight (Esnarriaga et al. 2020;Jiao et al. 2023). Agroforestry is an integrated approach to land use that is characterized by deliberate maintenance of trees and other woody perennials in crop fields and pastures (Parihaar et al. 2015; Bargali et al. 2019;Karki et al. 2021) and known as one of the best traditional practices for livelihood, suitable land management and sustainable development (Padalia et al. 2022). To maintain the sustainable agricultural production system and to alleviate forest deprivation, it is essential to systematically understand the intensive farming arrangement (Karki et al. 2022). ...
Vernicia fordii, a tropical and subtropical oil tree species, is highly esteemed for its fruit but yields slow economic returns. To address this, a study was conducted on intercropping Vernicia fordii with Polygonatum odoratum, a Chinese herbal medicine, to investigate its effects on rhizosphere soil microorganisms and potential for accelerated economic gains. Comparisons were drawn with monocultures of both P. odoratum and V. fordii. Utilizing 16S rDNA sequencing analysis, the study unveiled a profound impact of intercropping on the rhizosphere soil microbial community. Specifically, the abundance of certain bacterial communities such as Actinomycetes, Bacteroidetes, and Chloroflexi, as well as fungal communities like Ascomycota and Basidiomycota, underwent significant changes under intercropping conditions. Within the bacterial community, the relative abundance of Actinobacteria, Myxococcola, and Chloroflexi increased notably by approximately 33.3%, 50%, and 50%, respectively, while Proteobacteria and Acidobacteria decreased significantly by 16.7% and 20%, respectively (p < 0.05). Concurrently, Ascomycota and Basidiomycota in the fungal community showed a significant increase in relative abundance by 10% and 5%, respectively. Functional predictions further indicated enhanced metabolic activities related to nitrogen fixation and chitin decomposition.Moreover, intercropping led to a marked increase in soil nutrient content, including organic matter, available potassium, alkaline hydrolyzable nitrogen, and sucrase activity, which are crucial for the advancement of biogeochemical processes. In terms of plant growth, P. odoratum under intercropping exhibited significant advantages, with increased plant height, ground diameter, and biomass. Notably, the ground diameter increased by 9.75% and biomass by 28.8%. Additionally, the chemical composition of P. odoratum underwent changes, with polysaccharides, total flavonoids, and total saponins showing increases of 1%, 32.9%, and 13.9%, respectively, whereas total phenolic content decreased by 19.0% (p < 0.05). In summary, intercropping not only alters the composition and abundance of soil microbial communities and enhances soil nutrient content but also promotes the growth and accumulation of specific chemical components in P. odoratum. These findings have positive implications for agricultural and forestry production, offering valuable insights for improving agricultural efficiency and economic benefits.
... In the highly dissected landscapes of mountainous ecosystems, bioclimatic conditions change rapidly and vary within short distances, resulting in a pronounced heterogeneity of soils and their chemical, physical, and biological properties (Bargali et al., 2018;Fartyal et al., 2025). Physico-chemical properties of soils vary in space and time because of variations in topography, climate, weathering processes, vegetation cover, and microbial activities (Paudel and Sah, 2003;Bargali et al., 2019;Manral et al., 2022) and several other biotic and abiotic factors (Manral et al., 2020;Pandey et al., 2024). Consequently, it could directly affect the vegetation types and their functions in these fragile ecosystems (Baumler, 2015). ...
The Himalayas are a crucial centre of biological diversity, supporting a wide range of habitats of floral and faunal communities. Conserving this ecosystem is vital for sustaining life on Earth, including human well-being. Today, maintaining forest ecosystems in the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) is indispensable not only for the endemic species, but also for the conservation of global biodiversity. The current study covers Talra Wildlife Sanctuary of northwest Himalaya to quantify the biomass and carbon stock in the conifer and broadleaved forest. The data acquisition was performed through random sampling using 50 × 50 m plots along the different altitudinal gradients. The plants having a diameter at breast height (dbh) >10 cm at a 1.37 girth height were identified, enumerated and measured. The result showed that a total of 14 forest communities were specified based on IVI. The total carbon stock values were found to be varied consistently from 131.5 to 357.7 Mg ha-1 in the TWS. The Picea smithiana-Abies pindrow (Ps-Ap) mixed forest community contained a highest amount of carbon stock, 357.7 ± 48.3 Mg ha-1 ; followed by Picea smithiana (Ps) and Abies Pindrow (Ap) dominant, respectively. The understory biomass was also found in a range from 2.10 to 4.4 Mg ha-1 (avg. 3.34 ± 0.66Mg ha-1). The litter biomass was in a range of 1.2-2.9 Mg ha-1 (avg. 2.04 ± 0.48 Mg ha-1). Soil properties showed that on the top layer (0-15 cm), soil moisture (%) and soil organic carbon (%) were 30.2 ± 4.7 (%) and 2.9 ± 0.55 (%), whereas 21.3 ± 4.8 (%) and 1.9 ± 0.53 (%), respectively, at a depth of 15-30 cm. The correlation coefficient indicated a positive correlation (r = 0.85; p < 0.05) between tree carbon stock and tree density.
... Soil is an essential part of terrestrial ecosystems because it maintains ecosystem functioning and provides ecological services that human society depends on (Huang et al., 2025). For instance, soil is the basis for vital ecosystem services like food provisioning and carbon sequestration (Bargali et al., 2019, Manral et al., 2023 and has a significant impact on energy flow and nutrient cycling in terrestrial ecosystems , Medriano et al., 2023. Human life and well-being depend on these functions, which are also critical for tackling significant global issues like food security, environmental pollution, climate change, and public health (Velasquez & Lavelle, 2019, Rillig et al., 2023. ...
Studies have shown that microbial community structure is influenced by tree species identity thus the objective of this study was to determine microbial community structure in the rhizosphere of five selected tropical trees. This research was conducted at the Forestry Arboretum of the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Port Harcourt. Random sampling was used to collect soil samples from the rhizosphere of selected trees at a depth of 0-30cm for microbial analysis and identification in the laboratory using standard procedures. Results showed significant difference in microbial population across all trees with the highest microbial population observed under Tectona grandis (4.6x106 cfu/g) and the lowest microbial population recorded under Irvingia gabonensis. Ranges of microbial population were, total heterotrophic bacteria 0.88x106cfu/g – 4.6x106 cfu/g, and total heterotrophic fungi 3.0x103 cfu/g – 15.0 x103 cfu/g. Microbial diversity showed variation across all tree species, a total of 11 Bacteria and 9 fungi species were isolated and identified. Bacillus spp was the most predominant bacterium; Aspergillus spp was the most predominant fungus, highest microbial diversity was observed under Tectona grandis and Gmelina arborea, and lowest microbial diversity was found under Nauclea diderrichii. All five selected tropical tree species had effect on the microbial community structure but Tectona grandis exerted the most effect. This tree can therefore be utilized in agroforestry to boast nutrient availability and sustainable agriculture.
... In the analysis of the correlation between phosphorusfunctional genes and soil, it was found that EC, TN, MBP were significantly positively correlated with the ppx-gppA gene, while AP, EC, TN were significantly positively correlated with the phoB gene, and TN and MBP were significantly negatively correlated with the phoP gene. It shows that land use change can affect the diversity of microbial communities by changing vegetation characteristics and soil properties [42]. In this study, with the conversion of Moso plantation to different crops, the functional microbial communities in soil related to P cycling changed in abundance and composition. ...
In order to explore the effects of planting two economic crops in Moso plantations on the composition of soil phosphorus-functional microbial community, this study collected soil samples of Persimmon and Tea-oil plantations cultivated on the original bamboo soil for 3 years for comparison. Soil physical and chemical measurements and metagenomic sequencing were used to evaluate the effects of crop cultivation on the diversity of soil phosphorus-functional microorganisms. Results show that (1) Moso forests are converted to different crops after the soil pH values decline, and other physical and chemical properties of soil and microbial biomass phosphorus (MBP) content rise. (2) Soil microbial community structure changed with crop planting. The number of phosphorus-functional bacteria in Persimmon soil was higher than Tea-oil and Moso soils, with the total number of phosphorus-functional bacteria and unique phosphorus-functional bacteria in Persimmon soil being the highest. (3) The relative abundance of phoU, phoR, ugpA, ugpB, gcd and ppaC genes was significantly increased, while the abundance of pstA, pstB and pstC genes was decreased by crop replanting. (4) The dominant phosphorus-functional microorganisms under different crop cultivation were closely related to basic soil properties. Bradyrhizobium and Camellia abundances were significantly positively correlated with soil total phosphorus (TP), while Sphingomonas was significantly negatively correlated with soil TP. Soil electrical conductivity (EC), soil total nitrogen (TN) and soil MBP were positively correlated with the ppx–gppA gene. AP, EC and TN were positively correlated with the phoB gene, while TN and MBP were negatively correlated with the phoP gene. These results suggested that land use patterns could directly change soil environmental conditions, thereby affecting phosphorus-functional microbial communities. In conclusion, the conversion of Moso plantations to commercial crops is beneficial for the optimization of the soil system, promoting the activation and release of soil phosphorus to maintain the dynamic balance of soil microbial community.
... Altitude is among the key environmental variables that has been documented to affect secondary metabolism in plants [17] and has a considerable impact on the runoff-erosion behavior and fertility of the soil [18]. Intensive agricultural practices have degraded the soils in terms of the nutrients and farmers have been forced to use chemical fertilizers to compensate it [19,20]. Moreover, excessive use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers also causes serious issues and may degrade the quality of medicinal plant products. ...
... Soil properties therefore vary within short distances according to parent rocks, vegetation cover and land use. In the highly dissected landscapes of Himalaya region, bioclimatic conditions change rapidly with the altitude and may vary within short distances resulting in a pronounced heterogeneity of soil types [67] hence influence the distribution of vegetation, their traits and production [19,68]. Moisture content increased slightly with altitude, while pH decreased, indicating acidic soil nature. ...
Background
Reinwardtia indica, a highly valued ethnomedicinal plant, has been traditionally used to treat various ailments due to its rich phytochemical composition. However, the impact of environmental factors, particularly altitude, on its medicinal properties remains unexplored. This study investigates the effects of altitudinal variation on phytochemicals, mycorrhizal diversity, and soil physico-chemical parameters of R. indica.
Results
The phytochemical study of R. indica revealed significant variations in phytochemical content across different altitudes. The methanol extract from the high-altitude site (i.e. Chail, 2000 m) exhibited the highest levels of phenol (142.63 ± 1.88 mg/g GAE), tannins (146.11 ± 1.73 mg/g GAE), flavonoid (51.59 ± 2.20 mg/g RUT), carbohydrate content (485.00 ± 1.52 mg/g GLU), and protein (12.95 ± 0.35 mg/g GAE). GC-MS analysis identified different bioactive compounds with antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antitumor properties. HPLC analysis showed varying rutin content across altitudes, with the highest amount at higher altitude. The plant’s association with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi decreased with increasing altitude, as evidenced by reduced mycorrhizal spore diversity and root colonization. Soil physico-chemical properties like soil pH, organic carbon, phosphorus and nitrogen also increased with the altitude.
Conclusion
This study demonstrates that altitudinal variation significantly influences the phytochemical composition, mycorrhizal diversity, and soil properties of R. indica. High-altitude sites exhibited increased phytochemical content, particularly phenols, flavonoids, and tannins, suggesting enhanced medicinal value. Conversely, mycorrhizal association decreased with altitude, potentially due to environmental and soil property changes. These findings have implications for optimizing cultivation and conservation strategies for R. indica, highlighting the importance of altitude considerations in harnessing its medicinal potential.
... Seasonal changes, climate, vegetation type, land use, soil texture, fire, grazing, and other human and natural activities all have an impact on soil nutrient concentrations (Bargali et al. 2018;Bargali, Padalia, and Bargali 2019;Negi et al. 2024). The SOC content decreased from forest to grassland soil in oak forest zone while in pine and cypress forest zone the SOC increased in grasslands as compared to respective forests. ...
Land‐use changes are anticipated to be a substantial contributor to global change climate, substantially causing significant modifications in soil characteristics. This study addressed the impact of land‐use change from native forests to grasslands on the soil physico‐chemical properties in entirely replicated grasslands of three different forest zones (Oak, Pine and Cypress) in temperate region of Kumaun Himalaya. A total of 162 soil samples (6 sites × 3 plots × 3 seasons × 3 depths = 162 samples) were randomly collected from each site in triplicates from depths. The soil texture, bulk density (bD), porosity, water holding capacity, soil moisture content, pH, organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (TN), available phosphorus (P) and available potassium (K) were determined at different depths in forest and grassland sites. Results showed that soil bD, pH, SOC, TN, P and K significantly ( p < 0.05) decreased with increasing depth. Moreover, conversion of forests into grassland reduced nutrient concentrations, physical qualities (bD and porosity), and pH levels. The decreasing trend of nutrient along the soil depth explains that the zone of nutrient accumulation is not well established in these grasslands because of the substantial leaching effect. Our findings indicate that conversion of natural forests into grasslands resulted in significant losses of SOC and TN stocks which can be attributed to the disturbance of natural forests. Therefore, while making land‐use change plans, the impact of these alterations on soil nutrients must be considered. These findings emphasize the value of establishing natural vegetation (forests) in these areas to retain nutrients and safeguard soil against runoff and erosion. However, anticipating the physico‐chemical impacts of land‐use alteration necessitates a better comprehension of its relations with other drivers of global change, such as changing climate and nitrogen deposition.
