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Depiction of a male scientist, wearing a lab coat and eyeglasses, with facial hair and peculiar hairstyle, using research symbols.
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Research concerning the conceptions of non-experts (mainly students and teachers) about the nature of science has focused over the last decades on their images of scientists. Specifically, studies concentrating on teachers’ relevant conceptions are particularly critical, since their images of scientists affect their teaching practices, forming a ‘h...
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Context 1
... the eight indicators, the most commonly used was “knowledge symbols” (25.0%), such as textbooks, stationery, blackboard and chalks. The second most commonly used indicator was “growth of facial hair” (13.4% ), i.e. depictions of scientists who were bald, had odd hairstyles, or had moustaches and/or beards (see Figure 2). The next three indicators in terms of frequency of use were “lab coat” (12.6%), “written captions” (12.3%) -usually concerning formulae or symbols written on a chalkboard- and “research symbols” (11.8%), such as test tubes and bottles surrounding the scientist, closely followed by eyeglasses (11.4%). Technology products (especially computers) were considerably less frequently depicted (9.9%), while objects of the natural world were depicted in only a few cases (3.6%). The participants used the indicators of the stereotype model in different ways when depicting male and female scientists. This difference is statistically significant (x 2 =32.16, df=7, p<0.001). More specifically -as one may observe by comparing the indicators used in the drawings of Figure 2 and Figure 3- facial hair and peculiar hairstyles as well as eyeglasses were recorded in pictorial representations of male scientists more frequently than expected, while knowledge symbols, technology products, captions and natural objects were more frequently introduced when a female scientist was depicted. Furthermore, it emerges that the use of the eight indicators is differentiated according to teachers’ sex ( x 2 =87.36, df=7, p<0.001). This difference is due to the tendency of male teachers to include technology products, facial hair/peculiar hairstyle, and knowledge symbols in their drawings more frequently than expected, while female teachers tend to represent scientists wearing lab coats, eyeglasses, being surrounded by research symbols, and written captions. Teachers’ professional status was also found to significantly differentiate the used indicators. This differentiation is apparent between pre-service and in-service teachers (x 2 =128.94, df=7, p<0.001) and in regards to the level of education they are employed in (x 2 =166.06, df=28, p<0.001). Thus, pre-service teachers include in their drawings indicators such as lab coats, eyeglasses, research symbols and captions more frequently than expected, while in-service teachers tend to depict facial hair and/or peculiar hairstyles, knowledge symbols and technology products. Moreover, in the drawings of primary teachers facial hair/peculiar hairstyle and research symbols are observed more frequently than expected, secondary education teachers show a preference to facial hair/peculiar hairstyle and technology products, tertiary education teachers seem to include knowledge symbols and technology products in their drawings more frequently than expected, just like vocational training teachers, who additionally tend to represent scientists surrounded by natural objects. In general, teachers chose to represent more male scientists in their first drawing (see Table 3). However, male teachers spontaneously drew male scientists, rather than female ones, while female teachers tended to draw female rather than male scientists more frequently than expected (x 2 =17.58, df=1, ...
Context 2
... the eight indicators, the most commonly used was “knowledge symbols” (25.0%), such as textbooks, stationery, blackboard and chalks. The second most commonly used indicator was “growth of facial hair” (13.4% ), i.e. depictions of scientists who were bald, had odd hairstyles, or had moustaches and/or beards (see Figure 2). The next three indicators in terms of frequency of use were “lab coat” (12.6%), “written captions” (12.3%) -usually concerning formulae or symbols written on a chalkboard- and “research symbols” (11.8%), such as test tubes and bottles surrounding the scientist, closely followed by eyeglasses (11.4%). Technology products (especially computers) were considerably less frequently depicted (9.9%), while objects of the natural world were depicted in only a few cases (3.6%). The participants used the indicators of the stereotype model in different ways when depicting male and female scientists. This difference is statistically significant (x 2 =32.16, df=7, p<0.001). More specifically -as one may observe by comparing the indicators used in the drawings of Figure 2 and Figure 3- facial hair and peculiar hairstyles as well as eyeglasses were recorded in pictorial representations of male scientists more frequently than expected, while knowledge symbols, technology products, captions and natural objects were more frequently introduced when a female scientist was depicted. Furthermore, it emerges that the use of the eight indicators is differentiated according to teachers’ sex ( x 2 =87.36, df=7, p<0.001). This difference is due to the tendency of male teachers to include technology products, facial hair/peculiar hairstyle, and knowledge symbols in their drawings more frequently than expected, while female teachers tend to represent scientists wearing lab coats, eyeglasses, being surrounded by research symbols, and written captions. Teachers’ professional status was also found to significantly differentiate the used indicators. This differentiation is apparent between pre-service and in-service teachers (x 2 =128.94, df=7, p<0.001) and in regards to the level of education they are employed in (x 2 =166.06, df=28, p<0.001). Thus, pre-service teachers include in their drawings indicators such as lab coats, eyeglasses, research symbols and captions more frequently than expected, while in-service teachers tend to depict facial hair and/or peculiar hairstyles, knowledge symbols and technology products. Moreover, in the drawings of primary teachers facial hair/peculiar hairstyle and research symbols are observed more frequently than expected, secondary education teachers show a preference to facial hair/peculiar hairstyle and technology products, tertiary education teachers seem to include knowledge symbols and technology products in their drawings more frequently than expected, just like vocational training teachers, who additionally tend to represent scientists surrounded by natural objects. In general, teachers chose to represent more male scientists in their first drawing (see Table 3). However, male teachers spontaneously drew male scientists, rather than female ones, while female teachers tended to draw female rather than male scientists more frequently than expected (x 2 =17.58, df=1, ...
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... Τα ερευνητικά ευρήματα συμφωνούν μάλιστα ότι οι στερεότυπες εικόνες διαμορφώνονται από τις μικρές ηλικίες (Blagdanic et al., 2019, Pekdoğan & Bozgün, 2019, Τουρναβίτη, 2020, Χρηστίδου κ. συν., 2006 και ενισχύονται σταθερά μέχρι την εφηβεία (Buldu, 2006, Chambers, 1983, Finson, 2002, Mason et al., 1991, Newton & Newton, 1998, Schibeci & Riley, 1986, She, 1998. Τέτοιες εικόνες είναι μάλιστα δημοφιλείς ανάμεσα σε μαθητές και μαθήτριες ποικίλων εθνικών και πολιτισμικών προελεύσεων (Baybars, 2020, Fung, 2002, Christidou et al., 2016, Mays, 2001, She, 1998, Meyer et al., 2019, Song & Kim, 1999, Sumrall, 1995, Yang & Zhou, 1997, αλλά σε εκπαιδευτικούς (Hatzinikita, 2007, Hatzinikita et al., 2009, Quita, 2003, Rubin et al., 2003, Χρηστίδου et al., 2008. ...
... «Ζωγράφισε έναν/μία ή περισσότερους/ες επιστήμονες…», βλ. Hatzinikita et al., 2009, Χρηστίδου κ. συν., 2006, είτε χρησιμοποιήθηκαν συμπληρωματικά προς το σχέδιο ερευνητικά εργαλεία, όπως η συνέντευξη (Αvraamidou, 2013, Boylan et al., 1992, ή τα έργα επιλογής εικόνων (Christidou et al., 2016, Hill & Wheeler, 1991, προκειμένου να διερευνηθούν σε περισσότερη έκταση και βάθος οι σχετικές αντιλήψεις των μαθητών. Σε τέτοιες έρευνες τα ευρήματα που βασίζονται σε λεκτικές ή άλλες συμπληρωματικές τεχνικές τείνουν να αποκαλύπτουν λιγότερο στερεοτυπικές, περισσότερο ακριβείς και πιο θετικές αντιλήψεις για τους επιστήμονες σε σχέση με το σχέδιο (Bernard & Dudek, 2017, Blagdanic et al., 2019, Buldu, 2006, Christidou et al., 2016, Hill & Wheeler, 1991, Maoldomhnaigh & Mhaolin, 1990, Mason et al., 1991Palmer, 1997. ...
... Στη χώρα μας, η έρευνα για την εικόνα των επιστημόνων και της επιστημονικής έρευνας μετρά ήδη αρκετά χρόνια και έχει αναδείξει παρόμοια ευρήματα με εκείνα των συναφών διεθνών μελετών (Christidou, 2010, Emvalotis & Koutsianou, 2018, Τουρναβίτη, 2020, Χρηστίδου κ. συν., 2006. Οι συναφείς έρευνες της τελευταίας δεκαετίας στον ελληνικό χώρο καλύπτουν ένα ευρύ ηλικιακό φάσμα μαθητών, από την προσχολική ηλικία (Τουρναβίτη, 2020), την πρωτοβάθμια (Christidou et al., 2016, Emvalotis & Koutsianou, 2018, Χρηστίδου κ. συν., 2006 και τη δευτεροβάθμια εκπαίδευση (Christidou, 2010, καθώς και μελλοντικούς (Χρηστίδου κ. συν., 2008) και εν ενεργεία (Hatzinikita et al., 2009) εκπαιδευτικούς. ...
Η έρευνα για την εικόνα των επιστημόνων, όπως αποτυπώνεται στα σχέδια των μαθητών μετρά αρκετές δεκαετίες διεθνώς, ενώ έχει αναδείξει την ύπαρξη μιας στερεότυπης εικόνας για τους επιστήμονες που αρχίζει να αναδύεται από μικρή ηλικία και τείνει να ενισχύεται καθώς αυτά μεγαλώνουν. Αυτή η εικόνα συνδέεται με αποξένωση των παιδιών από τις φυσικές επιστήμες, καθώς αντανακλά την πεποίθηση ότι «ο επιστήμονας δεν είναι σαν εμάς». Επιπλέον, υποδεικνύει περιορισμούς στην κατανόηση της φύσης της επιστήμης από μέρους των παιδιών. Η εργασία εστιάζει σε συναφείς έρευνες που πραγματοποιήθηκαν στη χώρα μας και ανέδειξαν την ύπαρξη τέτοιων στερεότυπων εικόνων ανάμεσα στους Έλληνες μαθητές και μαθήτριες. Παρουσιάζονται θεωρητικοί και μεθοδολογικοί προβληματισμοί. Συζητούνται τα κεντρικά χαρακτηριστικά της στερεότυπης εικόνας για τους επιστήμονες, όπως ανιχνεύονται μέσω σχεδίων των παιδιών και από συμπληρωματικά ερευνητικά εργαλεία. Αναλύεται η σημασία της υπέρβασης τέτοιων στερεοτύπων και διατυπώνονται προτάσεις για την εκπαίδευση στις φυσικές επιστήμες.
Internationally, a long research tradition on the image of scientists in children's drawings has been established. Relevant studies have indicated the existence of an enduring stereotype about scientists, emerging during the early years and being reinforced with age. This stereotypic image is related with students' alienation from science, since it reflects a widespread belief that "scientists are not like us". Moreover, it indicates significant deficiencies in students' understanding of the nature of science. The paper focuses on relevant research implemented in Greece, indicating the existence of such stereotypic images among students. Theoretical and methodological issues are presented. The prevailing features of the stereotypic image of scientists, identified in students' drawings and by means of complementary research instruments are discussed. The paper also emphasizes the importance of counterbalancing such stereotypes and outlines broad implications and directions for science education.
... Research on the images of science and scientists in Greece is rather limited. Relevant studies have only emerged during the last few years and have mainly focused on social representations of science in daily newspaper articles (Christidou et al., 2004), as well as drawings produced by students (Christidou, 2010;Christidou et al., 2012;Emvalotis & Koutsianou, 2018;Skoumios & Savvaidou-Kambouropoulou, 2012) and teachers (Hatzinikita, 2007;Hatzinikita et al., 2009). The outcomes of previous research in Greece largely converge with those of relevant studies internationally, indicating a complex and multifaceted image of science and scientists. ...
In the public field, a popular image dominates about scientists and science, involving an ambiguous and complex combination of stereotypes. In the present study, different dimensions of the public visual images of Greek scientists and science reflected in historical and contemporary photos are explored. Analysis of 971 contemporary and 209 historical photos of scientific researchers indicates that Greek scientists’ public visual images have improved over time in some respects. At the same time, the public image of their profession still preserves traditional stereotypic characteristics that resonate with popular but outdated images of science, widely adopted by the public.
... Images of scientists involve a number of distinctive characteristics, common in students' (Avraamidou 2013;Chambers 1983;Pion and Lipsey 1981) and teachers' (Hatzinikita et al. 2009;McCarthy 2015;Moseley and Norris 1999;Rubin et al. 2003) thinking, and widely dispersed in public cultural materials of various kinds, including the mass media, movies, comics (Flicker 2008;Haynes 2003;Locke 2005;Pansegrau 2008;Schibeci and Sorensen 1983;Schummer and Spector 2008;Song and Kim 1999;Steinke 2005;Weingart 2008), and even in children's books (McAdam 1990), or educational programs for children (Long and Steinke 1996). These reflect widespread social representations of scientists as individuals with particularities (Flicker 2008): They work secretly in laboratories; they are genius, socially isolated, even mentally disturbed, inhuman, evil and dangerous and often unable to control the products of their research (Finson 2002;Haynes 2003;Rubin et al. 2003;Song and Kim 1999). ...
... Furthermore, earlier studies (Hatzinikita et al. 2009;Moseley and Norris 1999;Quita 2003;Rubin et al. 2003) have indicated that both preservice and in-service teachers at all levels of education, from primary to tertiary, tend to adopt images of scientists with considerable similarities with those embraced by children. In this case, teachers are hardly expected to have a significant impact on changing their students' epistemological perceptions through instruction (Moseley and Norris 1999). ...
This study explores American and Greek primary pupils’ visual images of scientists by means of two nonverbal data collection tasks to identify possible convergences and divergences. Specifically, it aims to investigate whether their images of scientists vary according to the data collection instrument used and to gender. To this end, 91 third-grade American (N = 46) and Greek (N = 45) pupils were examined. Data collection was conducted through a drawing task based on Chambers (1983) ‘Draw-A-Scientist-Test’ (DAST) and a picture selection task during which the children selected between 14 pairs of illustrations those that were most probable to represent scientists. Analysis focused on stereotype indicators related with scientists’ appearance and work setting. Results showed that the two groups’ performance varied significantly across the tasks used to explore their stereotypic perceptions, although the overall stereotypy was not differentiated according to participants’ ethnic group. Moreover, boys were found to use more stereotypic indicators than girls, while the picture selection task elicited more stereotypic responses than the drawing task. In general, data collected by the two instruments revealed convergences and divergences concerning the stereotypic indicators preferred. Similarities and differences between national groups point to the influence of a globalized popular culture on the one hand and of the different sociocultural contexts underlying science curricula and their implementation on the other. Implications for science education are discussed.
... Sex-role stereotypes regarding scientific professions have also been revealed in non-experts' drawings, which in the majority involve male scientists (Buldu, 2006;Chambers, 1983;Finson, 2002;Hill and Wheeler, 1991;Mason et al., 1991;Schibeci and Sorenson, 1983;Sumrall, 1995), while women scientists tend to be drawn exclusively by female participants (Christidou et al., 2012;Hatzinikita et al., 2009;Maoldomhnaigh and Hunt, 1988;She, 1998). Stereotypic perceptions about scientists have been found to be embraced even by female researchers and postgraduate students (Auguste et al., 1999). ...
... Greek scientists' internet photos tend to include a variety of elements considered as indicative of the stereotypic scientist. Comparison of the self-image of Greek scientists with the image of scientists yielded by previous studies based on non-experts' drawings (Barman, 1999;Chambers, 1983;Christidou et al., 2012;Fung, 2002;Hatzinikita et al., 2009;Quita, 2003) indicates that this selfimage is overall considerably less stereotypic, since the average number of indicators in each photo is considerably lower than in these studies. Also, qualitative differentiations appear in the types of indicators used: Greek scientists tend to be depicted wearing eyeglasses and being surrounded by knowledge symbols and technology products more frequently than in studies based on nonexperts' drawings and less frequently with lab coats and research symbols. ...
... These tendencies are also confirmed by the stereotype indicators preferred in males' and females' depictions (eyeglasses, peculiar hair, knowledge symbols for men, presence of lab coats and research symbols for women). Interestingly, these tendencies harmonize with depictions of researchers in Greek students' (Christidou et al., 2012) and teachers' (Hatzinikita et al., 2009) drawings and could be interpreted as an indication that female scientists seek to establish their scientific status by means of readily recognizable, conventional elements of science in their depictions. Conversely, male scientists, having overcome such concerns, feel more confident to promote theoretical aspects of their endeavour, which reverses the norm in popular and self-images of science (at least in the case of chemistry) as described by previous research (Schummer and Spector, 2008). ...
A popular and well-established image of scientists and science dominates in the public field, signifying a contradictory and multifaceted combination of stereotypes. This paper investigates crucial aspects of the visual self-image of Greek scientists and science as exposed in photographic material retrieved from relevant institutions' websites. In total 971 photos were analysed along dimensions corresponding to the image of scientists and science. Analysis demonstrates ambivalence in Greek scientists' self-images between traditional stereotypic characteristics and an intention to overcome them. Differences between the self-images of physics, chemistry and biology are determined, as well as between the "masculine" and "feminine" face of science. Implications concerning improvements in science and scientists' self-images and further research are presented.
... In subsequent research by She (1998) an eighth indicator was added to the list: natural objects. The DAST technique has been used extensively by researchers and school practitioners to determine the image of the scientist held by pupils (Finson, 2002; Losh et al., 2008; Mason et al., 1991; Newton and Newton, 1998; Schibeci and Riley, 1986; Schibeci and Sorenson, 1983) and teachers (Hatzinikita, 2007; Hatzinikita et al., 2009; Moseley and Norris, 1999; Quita, 2003; Rubin et al., 2003). This methodology has proven to give valuable information regardless of participants' age, grade levels, gender, race, ethnicity and culture (Barman, 1999; Finson, 2002; Fung, 2002; Mays, 2001; Scherz and Oren, 2006; Schibeci and Sorenson, 1983; She, 1998; Song and Kim, 1999; Sumrall, 1995). ...
... Previous research concerning the image of scientists as reflected in drawings of non-specialists (particularly those of students and teachers) mainly focused on indicators of the stereotypic model proposed by Chambers (1983). In Greece, research in this area is limited (Hatzinikita, 2007; Hatzinikita et al., 2009; Samaras, 2009 ). In this context, the present study aims to extend the potential of analysis of such drawings beyond the dimensions usually discussed, by developing a more comprehensive framework of analysis, attending to additional components of the public image of science and scientists. ...
... Drawings collected during the " Please draw a researcher " competition as part of the " Researchers' Night 2007 " constitute expressive instances of how Greek teenagers might conceive of researchers and their activity. The images revealed comprise a variety of traditional stereotypes and explicit similar ages (Barman, 1999; Chambers, 1983; Fung, 2002; Samaras, 2009) or teachers (Hatzinikita et al., 2009; Quita, 2003 ): participants' drawings tended to include fewer indicators of the stereotypic model on average. The present study revealed a strong gender stereotype about researchers. ...
The image prevailing among the public of scientific research and researchers constitutes a contradictory and complex combination of traditional stereotypes. We explore central facets of the image of scientific research and researchers as reflected in Greek adolescent students' drawings. Drawings were produced by 171 students participating in a drawing competition launched in the context of the "Researchers' Night 2007" implemented by three research institutions in Greece. Analysis of students' drawings involved dimensions related to the image of scientific researchers and of scientific research. Outcomes indicate that the students hold fairly outdated views of scientific researchers and their activity, involving stereotypic views of scientists and science, as well as gender stereotypes. Therefore there is an urgent need to promote a more relevant image of scientific researchers and their activity to young people and especially students.
... 4,22,23,24,25,26 These images are adopted by male and female students, with various national and cultural backgrounds, 5,7,16,26,27,28 as well as by teachers. 15,29,30,31,32 Scientists are mostly men, generally represented as geniuses, hard-working and attentive to the degree of obsession, surrounded by a veil of abstraction, confusion, even 'madness'. Sometimes their enthusiasm and scientific curiosity can put humanity in danger, since they possess secret knowledge and power over nature. ...
... 19,20,21 Such characteristics have also been recorded in different samples of Greek students 26,33,34 as well as teachers. 29,30 Similarly, as previously observed in a multitude of studies, 4,16,20,28,29,30 the present one reveals a robust gender stereotype related to scientific researchers, since the vast majority of depicted persons were male. This outcome is particularly important, especially if one takes into account that girl participants were overrepresented in the competition in comparison to boys. ...
... 19,20,21 Such characteristics have also been recorded in different samples of Greek students 26,33,34 as well as teachers. 29,30 Similarly, as previously observed in a multitude of studies, 4,16,20,28,29,30 the present one reveals a robust gender stereotype related to scientific researchers, since the vast majority of depicted persons were male. This outcome is particularly important, especially if one takes into account that girl participants were overrepresented in the competition in comparison to boys. ...
Public images of scientific researchers -as reflected in the popular visual culture as well as in the conceptions of the public- combine traditional stereotypic characteristics and ambivalent attitudes towards science and its people. This paper explores central aspects of the public image of the researcher in Greek students' drawings. The students participated in a drawing competition held in the context of the 'Researcher's Night 2007' realized by three research institutions at different regions of Greece. The students' drawings reveal that young people hold stereotypic and fairly traditional and outdated views of scientists and scientific activity. Research institutions are faced with the challenge of establishing a sincere and fertile dialogue with society to refute obsolete and deceiving notions and to promote the role of researchers in society. 8 the public image of almost anything is substantially a visual image. Research interest in the public engagement in science issues has emerged simultaneously with the development of visual studies and, although the public image of science has become an important topic, the public visual image of science has not. However, science-related texts have been relying on visualization at least since medieval times. This paper aims at revealing significant aspects of the public image of scientific researchers, as reflected in the visual images (drawings) produced by Greek students. In the following sections the public image of techno-scientific research -as outlined by previous studies- will be described, the context of the study and the main outcomes will be presented, and the relevant conclusions will be drawn.
During the last decades students" science-related interests, attitudes, and images of science and scientists, and their differentiations according to gender, culture, and socio-economic status have been investigated by a multitude of research studies. These aspects of students" voices seem to be interrelated and to also affect students" achievement in science and their relevant study and career aspirations. Moreover, school science and teachers, as well as popular science are considered as factors determining students" voices. This paper attempts a mapping of relevant literature in order to highlight crucial outcomes and draw educational and research implications. It is suggested that a comprehensive and integrated investigation of the voices of students, of school science and teachers", and of popular science is required in order to make informed, research-based decisions on designing school science curricula and teaching.
Public images of scientific researchers –as reflected in the popular visual culture as well as in the conceptions of the public-combine traditional stereotypic characteristics and ambivalent attitudes towards science and its people. This paper explores central aspects of the public image of the researcher in Greek students' drawings. The students participated in a drawing competition held in the context of the 'Researcher's Night 2007' realized by three research institutions at different regions of Greece. The students' drawings reveal that young people hold stereotypic and fairly traditional and outdated views of scientists and scientific activity. Research institutions are faced with the challenge of establishing a sincere and fertile dialogue with society to refute obsolete and deceiving notions and to promote the role of researchers in society.
