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Li-ion batteries are the powerhouse for the digital electronic revolution in this modern mobile society, exclusively used in mobile phones and laptop computers. The success of commercial Li-ion batteries in the 1990s was not an overnight achievement, but a result of intensive research and contribution by many great scientists and engineers. Then mu...
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... demand for Li-ion batteries increases rapidly, especially with the demand from electric-powered vehicles (Fig. 1). It is expected that nearly 100 GW hours of Li-ion batteries are required to meet the needs from con- sumer use and electric-powered vehicles with the later takes about 50% of Li-ion battery sale by 2018 [3]. Furthermore, Li-ion batteries will also be employed to buffer the intermittent and fluctuating green energy supply from ...
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... could be suitable for mass production. Interestingly, few monolayers of carbon film formed on the surface of olivine particles and the carbon also was deposited inside the pores of the particles. With just 3.4 wt% carbon, impressive cycling performance over 70 cycles could be achieved with no capacity fade at either room temperature or at 37°C (Fig. 11). It is particularly interest- ing to note that, without addition of carbon black as the conductivity enhancer typically for LiFePO 4 , they could achieve specific capacity of 140 and 150 mAh/g when tested at room temperature and at 37°C, respectively. The improved performance was attributed to the network of carbon film on the surface ...
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... addition to carbon coating, other conductivity en- hancers have been explored to improve the conductivity of LiFePO 4 as well. Chung and colleagues [56] explored the preparation of LiFePO 4 thin films with uniformly dis- persed highly conductive silver to improve the conductivity of LiFePO 4 (Fig. 12). With a small fraction of dispersed silver at only 1.37 wt%, a superior electrochemical per- formance in terms of specific capacity, cyclability, and high charge-discharge rate has been achieved. The preparation procedure for making this uniformly dispersed silver in LiFePO 4 thin films was remarkably simple. Pulsed laser deposition ...
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... could help to increase the energy density but demand for alternative stable electrolyte instead of conventional electrolyte. Another family of emerging polyanionic cathode is Li 2 MSiO 4 , (M = Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, e.g., Li 2 MnSiO 4 ), which could offer much high capacity of 330 mAh/g. The obstacles to adopt those high-capacity Li 2 MSiO 4 ( Fig. 13) are their poor electronic conductivity, poor rate capability and fast capacity fading upon cycling ...
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... oxide (with average composition of Li[Ni 0.68 Co 0.18 Mn 0.18 ] O 2 ) microparticles [59]. The cathode materials is unique in the way that the microparticles have concentration gra- dient, where the core is rich in Ni, and the outer layer is rich in Mn with decreasing Ni concentration and increasing Mn and Co concentrations at the surface (Fig. 14). The bulk core of Ni-rich cathode provides high capacity. The concentration-gradient outer layer and the surface improve the thermal stability. The cathode materials demonstrated impressive high reversible capacity of 209 mAh/g and good safety characteristics. It should be noted that the materials preparation procedure based on copre- ...
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... the first commercializa- tion of carbonaceous anodes, carbon is still dominant in commercial Li-ion batteries today. Graphitic carbon with Figure 13. The crystal structure of (A) a typical form of Li 2 MnSiO 4 (Pmnb) and (B) the hypothetical structure of the fully delithiated MnSiO 4 with SiO 4 shown in blue, LiO 4 in green, and MnO 4 in purple. ...
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... much effort is focused on disordered carbon, although the exact mechanism by which the high- specific capacity is achieved has not been fully understood [67][68][69]. Other carbon-based materials that have been extensively studied are buckminsterfullerene, carbon Figure 15. A family of carbon-based materials with different structure: (A) graphite with a stack of graphene layers, (B) diamond with carbon atoms arranged in a FCC structure, (C) buckminsterfullerene (C 60 ) with consisting of graphene balled into a sphere, (D) carbon nanotube with rolled-up cylinder of graphene, and (E) graphene of a single layer carbon, (F) the schematic of lithium intercalation and deintercalation between graphene layers in graphite. ...
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... and graphane (Fig. 15). Carbon nanotubes, in particular, can be a good lithium host on grounds of their excellent electronic conductivity and other properties associated with their linear dimensionality [70,71]. However, current interest is focused on CNT-and graphene- based composites instead of pristine CNTs or graphene to achieve much higher capacity than ...
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... have been widely studied since the first report by Tarascon's group [31]. Although metal oxides are generally poor in conductivity, properly tailored metal oxides at nanoscale have demonstrated promising charac- teristics. The reaction mechanism of lithiation and delithi- ation in metal oxides can be generally classified into three main types (Fig. 16): (1) the insertion/extraction, (2) the alloying/dealloying, and (3) the conversion mechanisms. The first mechanism is observed in different kinds of anode materials, including anatase TiO 2 [75]. In fact, most of cathode materials with layered or spinel structures also follow the insertion-extraction mechanism as discussed previously. ...
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... facile gram-scale preparation of anatase TiO 2 high- order structures with subunits of tunable nanoparticle aggregates from one precursor for Li-ion batteries has been reported [75]. The nanoparticles were formed by basic building units aggregated controlled by calcination temperature (Fig. 17). Interestingly, the size of the basic building units of TiO 2 nanoparticles can significantly af- fect their electrochemical characteristics. When the crystal- lite size was at 17 nm, the anatase TiO 2 aggregates achieved an impressive high capacity 170 mAh/g, which is close to the theoretical value of 168 mAh/g. When charged at higher ...
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... at nanoscale by simple cost-effective approaches on a large scale. Recently silicon nanowires have been reported to demonstrate promising reversible lithium storage proper- ties [15]. Cui and colleagues [15] proposed and demon- strated that silicon nanowires were superior in lithium ion storage as compared to silicon thin film and particles (Fig. 18). The silicon nanowires could avoid the issue of pulverization and contact loss due to facile strain relaxation and efficient electron transport along each nanowire. Bogart et al. [77] also demonstrated that silicon nanowires with carbon skin could enhance the cycling and rate per- formances of silicon nanowires in lithium storage. ...
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... transport along each nanowire. Bogart et al. [77] also demonstrated that silicon nanowires with carbon skin could enhance the cycling and rate per- formances of silicon nanowires in lithium storage. Recently, in another attempt, Ti@Si core-shell coaxial nanorods were proposed to further improve the electrochemical perfor- mances of Si nanorods (Fig. 19). As compared to pristine Si nanorods, the benefit of metallic core is that the axial resistance observed in solid Si nanorods could be dramati- cally reduced. The electrons released/acquired on electro- chemical reactions of dealloying/alloying for LixSi could be transferred to the Ti foil current collectors easily via the metallic Ti ...
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... author believes that silicon nanomaterials could potentially replace carbon anodes in the next 10 years, Figure 18. Schematic comparing the stability of (B) silicon nanowires with (A) thin film and particles upon repeated lithiation and delithiation. ...
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... in air at 800°C could remove the hollow carbon spheres and compacted the SnO 2 nanoparticles into hollow spheres. However, capacity fading was generally observed in SnO 2 -based anodes [81]. Another interesting SnO 2 -based anode material is electro- spray deposited thin films of particles with unique porous spherical multideck-cage morphology (Fig. 21). The reversible capacity was reported to be as high as 1158 mAh/g, which is even higher than theoretical value. The improved elec- trochemical performance was attributed to the unique struc- ture and the presence of Li 2 O and CuO phases in the composite film [85]. Interestingly, even higher capacity of 2050 mAh/g with excellent ...
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... These include transition metal dissolution in high-voltage Li batteries and polysulfide shuttling in Li-S batteries. [1][2][3][4][5][6] The major obstacle for implementing a Li metal anode is the formation of an unstable solid-electrolyte interface (SEI), which hinders Li-ion transport and charge transfer processes during repeated Li stripping and plating. 7,8 More importantly, the continuous growth of Li dendrites can short-circuit the electrochemical cell, leading to a catastrophic battery failure. ...
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... 3 Rechargeable Li-ion batteries dominate the global power market due to their superior energy density and extensive technological and industrial development. [4][5][6] However, adopting LIBs as a long-term energy storage solution will be hindered by issues with the limited natural abundance of lithium (only 0.002%), cost, and safety. 7 Hence, to achieve the sustainable energy shift away from LIBs, different metal ion candidates such as Na + , K + , Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, Zn 2+ , Al 3+ etc. are required 8-13 to address the challenges and outperform existing energy density measurements in the metal ion batteries. ...
This study investigates the interplay between organic solvent geometry and divalent cation dynamics in liquid electrolytes, emphasizing their relevance for energy storage systems. Using molecular dynamics simulations, the structural and transport properties of Mg²⁺ and Ca²⁺ were evaluated in cyclic (ethylene carbonate, EC; propylene carbonate, PC) and linear (ethyl methyl carbonate, EMC) solvents in the presence of TFSI⁻ anions across a range of temperatures. Results reveal that Mg²⁺ exhibits superior diffusion compared to Ca²⁺ due to its smaller ionic radius and weaker ion-pair interactions. Diffusion increases with temperature, following the solvent trend EC > EMC > PC. Coordination analysis showed compact solvation shells for both cations, with Ca²⁺ forming denser structures and demonstrating higher residence times compared to Mg²⁺. Solvent geometry significantly influenced solvation dynamics, with cyclic solvents enhancing ion coordination and linear solvents reducing solvation due to steric hindrance. These findings underscore the critical role of solvent structure and ion dynamics in optimizing divalent-ion battery performance, positioning Mg²⁺ as a promising candidate for sustainable energy storage solutions.
... As the number of lithium ions embedded continues to increase, the charging capacity of lithium-ion batteries will also increase. During discharge, the lithium ions embedded in the negative carbon layer will escape back to the positive electrode and absorb electrons [34][35][36][37]. The internal chemical reactions during charging and discharging are represented as follows [38][39][40][41]: ...
The rising adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) utilizing lithium-ion batteries necessitates a robust understanding of state-of-health (SOH) estimation. The existing literature highlights various SOH estimation models, but a comprehensive comparative analysis is lacking. This paper addresses this gap by conducting an exhaustive review of diverse SOH estimation approaches for EV battery applications, including the direct measurement method, physical-based and data-driven approaches. Results highlight that data-driven methods, particularly those utilizing machine learning techniques, offer superior accuracy and adaptability but often require extensive datasets. In contrast, physical-based approaches provide interpretable insights but are computationally intensive, and direct measurement methods, though simple, lack generalizability. In addition, this paper also systematically reviews the indicators of battery SOH, influential factors affecting battery SOH, and various datasets used for SOH modeling. Future research should focus on integrating multiple modeling methodologies to leverage their combined strengths, enhancing the collection of comprehensive battery lifecycle datasets to support robust model development, and extending the scope of SOH estimation beyond individual cells to encompass entire battery packs.
... This limits the elongation of the resulting grains, which makes them less likely to be disconnected (something that can occur for GBPDs), this helps to prevent unintended artifacts, and improves the generatordiscriminator training. In particular, the values of a; b 2 R of the channels within the output layer are chosen such that the value of r i and the diagonal entries of D i are restricted to [1,10] and [0, 50], respectively. A more detailed pseudocode representation of this procedure is shown in Algorithm 1. Compute i j , j = 1, …, κ ⊳ Nearest neighbor indices 5: ...
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... Comprehending the process behind the deterioration of battery efficiency under elevated temperature and discharge current conditions is of utmost significance. Heat generation in Li-ion batteries can occur in various components such as the solid electrolyte interface (SEI) film [62], electrolyte and anode reduction [63], the response between cathode and electrolyte [64], and the interaction between cathode and secure [65]. The study reported a significant increase in the internal temperature of the Li-ion cell through overcharge, reaching a maximum of 199 • C, notably higher than the surface temperature by 93 • C [66]. ...
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... Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) offer a crucial solution for PEDs, addressing transportation and energy storage challenges [1,2]. Although LIBs show great potential owing to a longer cycle life and high energy density compared to other batteries, we are still in dire need of developing electrochemical energy storage systems that can overcome the scarcity of Li, which is around 0.0017 % [3,4]. A commercially designed anode for LIBs (graphite) is insufficient for high-demand applications mainly due to a low storage capacity of 372 mA h g − 1 [5,6]. ...
A R T I C L E I N F O Keywords: 2D anode Mg-ion battery Ca-ion battery Barrier energy Storage capacity A B S T R A C T The growing demand for sustainable and efficient energy storage solutions has spurred an intensified quest for alternatives to lithium-ion batteries. Mg/Ca-ion batteries are emerging as promising substitutes due to their abundant natural sources and cost-effectiveness. However, the substantial polarization of Mg and Ca ions presents significant challenges for conventional hosts. In this study, we shed light on the anodic applications of two-dimensional (2D) SiN 3 for Mg and Ca ions batteries employing density functional theory, combined with ab-initio molecular dynamics and the nudged elastic band method. Our findings reveal that the SiN 3 monolayer exhibits exceptional thermodynamic and kinetic properties, including favorable adsorption energies, low diffusion barriers , high storage capacity, and suitable operating voltages for both Mg and Ca ions. These outcomes emphasize the potential of monolayer SiN 3 to mitigate the drawbacks associated with traditional anode materials, offering a promising avenue toward more efficient and sustainable battery technologies.
... At present, battery cells comprising lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are primarily used in the battery packs of consumer electronics, electrified vehicles, and renewable energy generation plants [1][2][3]. LIBs chemistries, containing a lithium transition metal oxide positive electrode and graphite negative electrode, offer excellent cycling life, a high specific energy density, low memory effects, and a low self-discharge rate [4][5][6]. Inside the LIB-based battery pack, the cells are electrically connected in series and parallel to give the desired pack voltage and capacity ( Figure 1A). ...
... The battery pack is connected to a battery management system (BMS), which serves various functions ( Figure 1A). These functions include, but are not limited to (1) sensing for voltage, current, and temperature, (2) protecting against extreme conditions such as excessive currents, under and high voltage limits, etc., (3) interfacing with the user on helpful information such as charge control pack voltage and capacity ( Figure 1A). The battery pack is connected to a battery management system (BMS), which serves various functions ( Figure 1A). ...
... The battery pack is connected to a battery management system (BMS), which serves various functions ( Figure 1A). These functions include, but are not limited to (1) sensing for voltage, current, and temperature, (2) protecting against extreme conditions such as excessive currents, under and high voltage limits, etc., (3) interfacing with the user on helpful information such as charge control and range estimation and (4) battery state estimation for performance management and diagnostics [7,8]. Meanwhile, the battery cell within the battery pack can come in various form factors ( Figure 1B). ...
With the global rise in consumer electronics, electric vehicles, and renewable energy, the demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) is expected to grow. LIBs present a significant challenge for state estimations due to their complex non-linear electrochemical behavior. Currently, commercial battery management systems (BMSs) commonly use easier-to-implement and faster equivalent circuit models (ECMs) than their counterpart continuum-scale physics-based models (PBMs). However, despite processing more mathematical and computational complexity, PBMs are attractive due to their higher accuracy, higher fidelity, and ease of integration with thermal and degradation models. Various reduced-order PBM battery models and their computationally efficient numerical schemes have been proposed in the literature. However, there is limited data on the performance and feasibility of these models in practical embedded and cloud systems using standard programming languages. This study compares the computational performance of a single particle model (SPM), an enhanced single particle model (ESPM), and a reduced-order pseudo-two-dimensional (ROM-P2D) model under various battery cycles on embedded and cloud systems using Python and C++. The results show that reduced-order solvers can achieve a 100-fold reduction in solution times compared to full-order models, while ESPM with electrolyte dynamics is about 1.5 times slower than SPM. Adding thermal models and Kalman filters increases solution times by approximately 20% and 100%, respectively. C++ provides at least a 10-fold speed increase over Python, varying by cycle steps. Although embedded systems take longer than cloud and personal computers, they can still run reduced-order models effectively in Python, making them suitable for embedded applications.
