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DNS resolution attack on Bitcoin. The attacker poisons DNS cache and modifies the data. When a user queries the server to obtain IP addresses of peers who are accepting connections, he is routed to attacker's network. The attacker can game the user by feeding him fake blocks and transactions.
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... Next, infrastructure-specific attacks and vulnerabilities found in the literature are discussed. The studies 23,112,[79][80][81][82][83] have explored the various attacks happening due to the peer-to-peer nature of blockchain. They have also discussed the attacks due to protocol design, cryptographic vulnerabilities, malicious miners, criminal behavior, and smart contracts applications. ...
Blockchain technology has gained enormous interest from industry and academia recently. Technology enthusiasts are exploring its use case beyond cryptocurrencies and claim that blockchain technology can overcome the inefficiencies of centralized systems. In this study, we continue the work of previous authors, aiming to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the technical aspects of blockchain. This study is the first of its kind to review and analyze the current status of different technical aspects of blockchain technology influencing its adoption. We performed an extensive multivocal review to (i) demonstrate the progress of blockchain, (ii) discuss the challenges related to the wide‐scale adoption of the technology, (iii) present a detailed analysis of blockchain platforms, (iv) highlight security and interoperability issues followed by the solutions proposed in the literature. We have considered 259 peer‐reviewed research papers and the gray literature related to 40 blockchain platforms to provide an in‐depth analysis of blockchain technology. In conclusion, this comprehensive survey provides a holistic view of blockchain technology's progress. It identifies challenges, trends, and future research directions, serving as a valuable resource for researchers and practitioners seeking to navigate the dynamic blockchain landscape.
... Meanwhile, reference [24] utilized a range of features to predict the ETC and BTC prices, choosing dependable predictors using correlation analysis. When employing SVM on these features, linear regression surpassed the other methods. ...
This paper introduces hybrid models designed to analyze daily and weekly bitcoin return spanning the periods from 18 July 2010 to 28 December 2023 for daily data, and from 18 July 2010 to 24 December 2023 for weekly data. Firstly, the fractal and chaotic structure of the selected variables was explored. Asymmetric Cantor set, Boundary of the Dragon curve, Julia set z2 −1, Boundary of the Lévy C curve, von Koch curve, and Brownian function (Wiener process) tests were applied. The R/S and Mandelbrot–Wallis tests confirmed long-term dependence and fractionality. The largest Lyapunov test, the Rosenstein, Collins and DeLuca, and Kantz methods of Lyapunov exponents, and the HCT and Shannon entropy tests tracked by the Kolmogorov–Sinai (KS) complexity test determined the evidence of chaos, entropy, and complexity. The BDS test of independence test approved nonlinearity, and the TeraesvirtaNW and WhiteNW tests, the Tsay test for nonlinearity, the LR test for threshold nonlinearity, and White’s test and Engle test confirmed nonlinearity and heteroskedasticity, in addition to fractionality and chaos. In the second stage, the standard ARFIMA method was applied, and its results were compared to the LieNLS and LieOLS methods. The results showed that, under conditions of chaos, entropy, and complexity, the ARFIMA method did not yield successful results. Both baseline models, LieNLS and LieOLS, are enhanced by integrating them with deep learning methods. The models, LieLSTMOLS and LieLSTMNLS, leverage manifold-based approaches, opting for matrix representations over traditional differential operator representations of Lie algebras were employed. The parameters and coefficients obtained from LieNLS and LieOLS, and the LieLSTMOLS and LieLSTMNLS methods were compared. And the forecasting capabilities of these hybrid models, particularly LieLSTMOLS and LieLSTMNLS, were compared with those of the main models. The in-sample and out-of-sample analyses demonstrated that the LieLSTMOLS and LieLSTMNLS methods outperform the others in terms of MAE and RMSE, thereby offering a more reliable means of assessing the selected data. Our study underscores the importance of employing the LieLSTM method for analyzing the dynamics of bitcoin. Our findings have significant implications for investors, traders, and policymakers.
... This leads to sluggish performance, unresponsiveness, or complete outage, depending on the scale and nature of the attack. [13,14] III. VULNERABILITIES OF CLOUD INFRASTRUCTURE TO DDOS ATTACKS: ...
Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks continue to pose a significant threat to the availability and reliability of cloud computing services. As organizations increasingly rely on the scalability and efficiency of cloud environments to deliver critical applications and services, the vulnerability to disruptive DDoS attacks becomes a pressing concern. This paper investigates the intersection of DDoS attacks and cloud computing architecture, highlighting the vulnerabilities that arise due to shared resources and the challenges associated with effectively countering such attacks in dynamic and elastic cloud infrastructures. Recognizing the paramount importance of mitigating DDoS attacks to ensure seamless cloud service delivery, this paper explores key strategies to defend against and mitigate the impact of DDoS attacks. The strategies encompass a comprehensive approach, including traffic filtering, rate limiting, anomaly detection, elastic scaling, and application-layer protection. We emphasize the significance of collaboration between cloud service providers and their customers in establishing coordinated defense mechanisms to effectively thwart DDoS attacks. By examining real-world case studies and emerging trends, this paper not only underscores the critical need for proactive DDoS mitigation but also underscores the role of advanced technologies, such as artificial intelligence and blockchain, in bolstering cloud security against evolving DDoS attack techniques. As cloud computing continues to evolve, safeguarding cloud services against DDoS attacks becomes a paramount concern. This paper contributes to the discourse by offering insights into the challenges and strategies involved in mitigating DDoS attacks in cloud computing environments, ultimately fostering a resilient and secure cloud ecosystem.
... Furthermore, when the incoming traffic comes from various distributed sources across the internet, it becomes a distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attack. They attempt to overload the system by flooding it with continuous requests [44]. These attacks can be observed in a large-scale decision-making environment where many users can interact with the system. ...
Group decision making (GDM) involving consensus reaching process (CRP) attempts to achieve a consensus among Decision-Makers (DMs) before coming to a final decision. Computer-based decision support systems are present to support the decision-making process called the Group Decision Support Systems (GDSS). The traditional GDSS being centralized is subject to security, transparency, and trust issues, such as vulnerable to security risks providing attackers with a single target to attack, a single point of failure, and biases. In this regard, this paper identifies and discusses such issues. To address these issues, we introduce a novel idea of a decentralized group decision-making structure using blockchain technology. We proposed a consensus model suitable for the blockchain platform. For validation, we implement the proposed work using the Ethereum blockchain. Furthermore, a theoretical security analysis of the proposed model is also done to validate that the system eliminates possible security attacks. The possible experiments show that the proposed work minimizes the gas cost by minimizing the feedback cost. To the best of our knowledge, this work is the first step toward introducing the idea, and the advanced approaches will be the natural consequences of this work.
... Consequently, bitcoins (i.e., UTXOs) cannot be stolen, but recent transactions could potentially be reversed by a successful 51% attack, which is known as double spending [159]. As outlined in the previous paragraph, such attacks might also be used to demonstrate the vulnerability of a blockchain with the purpose of destroying it. ...
The energy use of Bitcoin is fiercely debated among academics, practitioners, and the general public. This debate is often biased and characterized by a lack of understanding. Therefore, I start this paper with a discussion of the fundamentals of Bitcoin, which includes the clarification of widely held misconceptions. Next, I illustrate how Bitcoin is related to energy and describe the underlying incentive mechanism. In the main body of the paper I discuss various components of Bitcoin’s energy use, including the amount, composition, and geographical distribution of the energy, as well as emerging positive and negative effects. These components are then combined into a comprehensive framework that provides a solid foundation for future academic research and presents practitioners with the big picture of how and why Bitcoin requires energy and whether this can be justified from an environmental point of view.
... With the explosion of blockchain applications in various fields, attacks on blockchains are also increasing, such as double-spending attacks, eclipse attacks, dust transaction attacks, and so on [35,36]. Smart homes, power grids, culture, housing, and health care are all examples of where blockchain is expected to perform a critical function in upcoming technological developments, and its use will likely skyrocket in the coming years [37]. ...
The recent progress in blockchain and wireless communication infrastructures has paved the way for creating blockchain-based systems that protect data integrity and enable secure information sharing. Despite these advancements, concerns regarding security and privacy continue to impede the widespread adoption of blockchain technology, especially when sharing sensitive data. Specific security attacks against blockchains, such as data poisoning attacks, privacy leaks, and a single point of failure, must be addressed to develop efficient blockchain-supported IT infrastructures. This study proposes the use of deep learning methods, including Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM), Bi-directional LSTM (Bi-LSTM), and convolutional neural network LSTM (CNN-LSTM), to detect phishing attacks in a blockchain transaction network. These methods were evaluated on a dataset comprising malicious and benign addresses from the Ethereum blockchain dark list and whitelist dataset, and the results showed an accuracy of 99.72%.
... Based on these parameters, the privacy rank of the blockchain system can be evaluated, and low ranked systems can be improved by using better trust-based solutions as mentioned in this review. A low privacy value gives rise to multiple attack types, these types are also called as attack surfaces, and are discussed in Saad et al. (2019). Attacks like blockchain ingestion, double spending, wallet theft, countering application-oriented attacks, etc. are discussed in this text. ...
... The probability of forks Empirical studies on blockchain protocols [19][20][21] have shown the emergence of forks, i.e. the simultaneous existence of multiple-potentially conflicting-blockchains among different groups of miners. In this paragraph we aim at giving a simple statistical intuition of this occurrence and its relationship to the interplay of two characteristic times: the mining times-governed by mining protocols and CPUs-and propagation times-governed by block sizes and network bandwidth. ...
Reaching consensus—a macroscopic state where the system constituents display the same microscopic state—is a necessity in multiple complex socio-technical and techno-economic systems: their correct functioning ultimately depends on it. In many distributed systems—of which blockchain-based applications are a paradigmatic example—the process of consensus formation is crucial not only for the emergence of a leading majority but for the very functioning of the system. We build a minimalistic network model of consensus formation on blockchain systems for quantifying how central nodes—with respect to their average distance to others—can leverage on their position to obtain competitive advantage in the consensus process. We show that in a wide range of network topologies, the probability of forming a majority can significantly increase depending on the centrality of nodes that initiate the spreading. Further, we study the role that network topology plays on the consensus process: we show that central nodes in scale-free networks can win consensus in the network even if they broadcast states significantly later than peripheral ones.
... In addition to the input data location, the miner stores a pointer to the transaction or a smart contract that corresponds to the solved CO problem instance in the nonce field of the block's header, enabling all participants to access its input data. The first example of data security issue involves preventing miners from performing selfish mining and other types of known frauds [81,82]. For example, miners could play the role of a customer and submit instances for which they already have highquality solutions with the aim of composing and adding blocks to the BC without much effort. ...
Blockchains (BCs) are distributed database systems, popular for their innovative, unsupervised maintenance process. They use a so-called consensus protocol to prevent inference by any third party of absolute trust. Security, privacy, consistency, and energy consumption have been identified as the main issues involved in BC maintenance. According to the recent literature, some of these issues can be formulated as combinatorial optimization (CO) problems, and this fact motivated us to consider incorporating CO approaches into a BC. In this paper, we propose the new combinatorial optimization consensus protocol (COCP) based on the proof-of-useful-work (PoUW) concept that assumes solving instances of real-life CO problems. Due to the complexity of the underlying CO problems, we have developed various types of heuristic methods, which are utilized in the COCP. Most of these methods are problem-dependent stochastic heuristic or metaheuristic methods. As is the case with the majority of consensus protocols, PoUW exhibits the property of asymmetry. It is difficult to find a solution for the considered CO problem; however, once a solution is found, its verification is straightforward. We present here a BC framework combining the two above-mentioned fields of research: BC and CO. This framework consists of improvements aiming towards developing the COCP of the PoUW type. The main advantage of this consensus protocol is the efficient utilization of computing resources (by exploring them for finding solutions of real-life CO problem instances), and the provision of a broad range of incentives for the various BC participants. We enumerate the potential benefits of the COCP with respect to its practical impacts and savings in power consumption, describing in detail an illustrative example based on part of the real-life BC network. In addition, we identify several challenges that should be resolved in order to implement a useful, secure, and efficient PoUW consensus protocol.
... Blockchains have economic incentives included within the protocol, and blockchain protocols can hold a lot of value for many people worldwide. However, this value gives power to certain individuals who control portions of either network that at times can be very centralized and susceptible to attacks such as majority mining or staking attacks (51% attacks) (Saad et al., 2019). While many people focus on how blockchain systems are decentralized at the base layer, maybe we should start focusing more on how systems can be decentralized from a governance perspective as well. ...
As Bitcoin continued to make headlines in 2021, additional digital assets such as non-fungible tokens brought more users into the blockchain ecosystem. As more individuals and entities took a closer look at the use cases for blockchain technology, the term metaverse began to emerge across news outlets and social media platforms. With Mark Zuckerberg, the Chief Executive Officer of Facebook, announcing that the organization would become a metaverse company and change the organization's name to Meta, this announcement came with some criticism in that the Meta metaverse would be centralized. In this case study, the current state of nation-states was viewed through the lens of Hobbes' The Leviathan to assess whether decentralized metaverses will transition to a Digital Leviathan using Bit.Country-a metaverse within the Polkadot blockchain ecosystem. The case study was conducted through interviews and uncovered that the quadruple bottom line implemented in conventional business could be transferrable to a digital world built on various blockchains, non-fungible tokens, and governance in a Digital Leviathan governed by the people.
