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Cumulative plastic waste generation and disposal (in million metric tons). Solid lines show historical data from 1950 to 2015; dashed lines show projections of historical trends to 2050.
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Plastics have outgrown most man-made materials and have long been under environmental scrutiny. However, robust global information, particularly about their end-of-life fate, is lacking. By identifying and synthesizing dispersed data on production, use, and end-of-life management of polymer resins, synthetic fibers, and additives, we present the fi...
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... plastics production data describe a robust time trend throughout its entire history. If production were to continue on this curve, humankind will have produced 26,000 Mt of resins, 6000 Mt of PP&A fibers, and 2000 Mt of additives by the end of 2050. Assuming consistent use patterns and projecting current global waste manage- ment trends to 2050 ( fig. S7), 9000 Mt of plastic waste will have been recycled, 12,000 Mt incinerated, and 12,000 Mt discarded in landfills or the natural environment (Fig. ...
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... k is the average use time of secondary plastics and RR (t − k) is the global recycling rate in year t − k. Amounts of plastic waste discarded and incinerated are calculated as DW(t) = [PW(t) + SW(t) • DR(t) and IW(t) = [PW(t) + SW(t)] • IR(t), with DR(t) and IR(t) being the global discard and incineration rates in year t ( fig. S5). Cumulative values at time T were calculated as the sum over all T − 1950 years of plastics mass production. Examples are cumulative primary production CP i ðTÞ ¼ ∑ T t¼1950 P i ðtÞ and cumulative primary plastic waste generation, CPWðTÞ ¼ ∑ T t¼1950 PWðtÞ (Fig. ...
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... resulting global nonfiber recycling rate increased at a constant 0.7% per annum (p.a.) between 1990 and 2014. If this linear trend is assumed to continue, the global recycling rate would reach 44% in 2050. The global nonfiber incineration rate has grown more unevenly but, on average, increased 0.7% p.a. between 1980 and 2014. Assuming an annual increase of 0.7% between 2014 and 2050 yielded a global incineration rate of 50% by 2050. With those two assumptions, global discard rate would decrease from 58% in 2014 to 6% in 2050 ( fig. S7). The dashed lines in Fig. 3 are based on those assumptions and there- fore simply forward projections of historical global trends and should not be mistaken for a prediction or forecast. There is currently no sig- nificant recycling of synthetic fibers. It was thus assumed that end-of- life textiles are incinerated and discarded together with all other municipal solid waste. table S1. Annual global polymer resin and fiber production in million metric tons (12)(13)(14)(15). table S2. Share of total polymer resin production according to polymer type and industrial use sector calculated from data for Europe, the United States, China, and India covering the period 2002-2014 (12, 13, 19-24). table S3. Share of additive type in global plastics production from data covering the period 2000-2014 (17, 18). table S4. Baseline mean values and SDs used to generate log-normal product lifetime distributions for the eight industrial use sectors used in this study (22,(25)(26)(27)(28)(29). ...
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Citations
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... LDPE accounts for nearly 20% of global plastic production, primarily used in single-use items such as plastic bags, packaging films, and squeeze bottles [2]. Due to its non-biodegradable nature, LDPE can persist in the environment for hundreds of years, gradually breaking down into microplastics under physical, chemical, and biological weathering, which then infiltrate food chains and aquatic ecosystems [3]. Studies have shown that LDPE is one of the most commonly found polymers in marine debris, contributing significantly to the pollution of beaches and coastal areas. ...
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... According to the latest data, the production of plastics in 2022 increased by 1.6 percent in one year, resulting in 400.3 million metric tons introduced to the market worldwide [2]. As a result of these non-circular and currently non-sustainable ways of treating plastic waste, the scientific literature claims that 12,000 million metric tons of plastic materials will be in landfills or the natural environment in 2050 [3]. This is a result of not economically viable circular paths, regardless of the recycling technologies, limiting the global adaptation of sustainable pathways of usage and treatment of plastic products [4]. ...
... In order to compare the test-based approach for the determination of the quality factors and derive conclusions, at least two fossil-based materials are needed. PET and HDPE are selected because they are considered the most recyclable polymer materials, primarily used in packaging applications [3]. ...
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... The extensive range of applications and insufficient management of plastic byproducts have led to widespread dispersion of plastic waste in both land-based and oceanic environments [1]. As reported by Plastic [2], the current rate of plastic production exceeds 400 million metric tons annually. ...
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... Today, plastics are mass-produced and widely used in daily life due to their durability and low cost (Geyer et al., 2017;Lithner et al., 2011). However, technical limitations and mismanagement result in less than 10% of plastic waste being recycled (Li et al., 2022a). ...
... org/ 10. 1007/ s10653-025-02573-y. have accumulated in the environment (Geyer et al., 2017). Plastics break down into smaller fragments through various physical, chemical, and biological processes, with particles smaller than 5 mm often defined as microplastics (MPs) (Thompson et al., 2004). ...
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Global plastic production has surged. Li et al. provide evidence of an important aspect of terrestrial plastic pollution, highlighting leaf absorption of airborne plastics as a major route into plants. Their work underscores the need for urgent action to reduce plastic emissions and re-evaluate agricultural and food safety frameworks.
... Plastic in the environment is one example of how human beings have the capacity to change the environment on a global scale (Hale et al. 2020). Plastic production worldwide is still increasing; roughly 79 percent has accumulated in the natural environment (Geyer, Jambeck, and Law 2017). Approximately 4.8-12.7 million metric tons of plastic debris has accumulated in the ocean, a figure that is projected to increase 10-fold by 2025 (Van Sebille et al. 2015). ...
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Microplastics (MPs) pollution has emerged as a significant global issue, posing potential threats to diverse ecosystems and wildlife species. Scientists have been documenting the presence of plastics in aquatic environments since the 1950s. Annually, approximately 8 million tonnes of plastic waste make its way into the oceans, a consequence of the rapid increase in plastic production. This plastic debris originates from various sources, including packaging materials, utensils, cosmetics, and plastic used in fishing nets, as well as lost nets, cages, and waste from fishing vessels. The fragmentation of this debris, whether through physical processes or biological means (including the action of plastic-degrading bacteria), leads to the creation of smaller particles known as ‘microplastics’ (less than 5 mm), which include even tinier particles termed plastics (less than 150 µm). These ubiquitous particles can be ingested, either directly or indirectly, by aquatic organisms, thus entering complex food webs. When contaminated fish are consumed by humans, there is a trophic transfer of MPs, potentially resulting in adverse health effects. The issue of marine MPs debris exemplifies the challenge of balancing the convenience of plastic use in everyday life with the ecological damage caused by improper disposal. Marine wildlife – including sharks, rays, turtles, whales, fish, shrimp, and seabirds – is affected by MPs. While chronic exposure is rarely fatal, it can harm individual animals by impairing feeding and draining energy reserves, which in turn can affect reproduction and growth. This review explores the impact of MPs (bibliometrically and comprehensively) on aquatic wildlife.
