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Cross plots for QXRD-and ICP-AES-derived data, SM1 borehole. A. % polyhalite (XRD) vs. K-derived % polyhalite (ICP-AES), using traditional, slow lithium metaborate fusion prior to ICP-AES. B. % polyhalite (XRD) vs. K-derived % polyhalite (ICP-AES), using new, rapid lithium metaborate fusion prior to ICP-AES. C. % polyhalite (XRD) vs. Ca-derived % polyhalite (ICP-AES), using traditional, slow lithium metaborate fusion prior to ICP-AES. D. % halite (XRD) vs. Na-derived % halite (ICP-AES), using traditional, slow lithium metaborate fusion prior to ICP-AES.
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Traditionally, potash mineral deposits have been characterized using downhole geophysical logging in tandem with geochemical analysis of core samples to establish the critical potassium (% K2O) content. These techniques have been employed in a recent exploration study of the Permian evaporite succession of North Yorkshire, United Kingdom, but the c...
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... with lithium metaborate for the polyhalite-bearing intervals indicated good agreement at both high and low polyhalite contents. However, where samples contained a significant proportion of halite, QXRD and ICP-AES K content-derived polyhalite concentrations showed an alarming disparity result- ing in a "banana-shaped" correlation plot (Table 3, Fig. 7A). Confusingly, ICP-AES-derived mineral concentrations from other elements (Ca, Mg, and Na) produced straight-line cor- relations with QXRD polyhalite (e.g., Fig. 7C) and QXRD halite (Fig. 7D), ...
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... significant proportion of halite, QXRD and ICP-AES K content-derived polyhalite concentrations showed an alarming disparity result- ing in a "banana-shaped" correlation plot (Table 3, Fig. 7A). Confusingly, ICP-AES-derived mineral concentrations from other elements (Ca, Mg, and Na) produced straight-line cor- relations with QXRD polyhalite (e.g., Fig. 7C) and QXRD halite (Fig. 7D), ...
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... halite, QXRD and ICP-AES K content-derived polyhalite concentrations showed an alarming disparity result- ing in a "banana-shaped" correlation plot (Table 3, Fig. 7A). Confusingly, ICP-AES-derived mineral concentrations from other elements (Ca, Mg, and Na) produced straight-line cor- relations with QXRD polyhalite (e.g., Fig. 7C) and QXRD halite (Fig. 7D), ...
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... correlations between QXRD and ICP-AES fusion data for several major elements (Ca, Na; Fig. 7C, D) suggested that there was no universal recovery or performance failing and the issue was restricted to K data. Closer inspection of the K recov- ery curve (Fig. 7A) further showed that for high-purity polyhalite samples the K recovery agreed well with QXRD data. However, as the proportion of polyhalite in the sample (determined by QXRD) ...
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... correlations between QXRD and ICP-AES fusion data for several major elements (Ca, Na; Fig. 7C, D) suggested that there was no universal recovery or performance failing and the issue was restricted to K data. Closer inspection of the K recov- ery curve (Fig. 7A) further showed that for high-purity polyhalite samples the K recovery agreed well with QXRD data. However, as the proportion of polyhalite in the sample (determined by QXRD) decreased, the ICP-AES results underrepresented the amount of K present, with the size of the relative discrepancy increasing monotonically. There was one ...
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... placing the weighed sample crucibles directly into a preheated furnace for 10 min and removing promptly, rather than ramping the temperature from cold and cooling over a much longer period. The results showed significantly improved recovery of K, with good linear agreement with the QXRD data over the full range of sample compositions (Table 3, Fig. 7B). The modified faster fusion procedure was then used for all sub- sequent ICP-AES analysis of the insoluble ...
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This open access book includes instruction of national mineral database 2020 and atlas of national mineral deposits distribution derived from national mineral database 2020. National mineral database 2020 is based on data from National Geological Archives China(NGAC).
Moreover, it introduces the construction method and updates maintenance mechanism...
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... To mitigate the issue of fertilizer caking, numerous industries have chosen to employ coatings as protective layers for fertilizer particles. Coatings are frequently applied to minimize moisture absorption by fertilizers and enhance their (CRH) (Walker et al. 1997;Rutland 1991a, b; 'Guidance for the Compatibility of Fertilizer Blending Materials (2006)', n.d.) (Kemp et al. 2016;Fraps and Schmidt 1932;Fig. 12 Changes in caking as a function of temperature for a NPK and b DAP Mangwandi et al. 2011;Walker et al. 2003;Hignett 2013;Easterwood 2012;Jacobson 2005;Lightstone et al. 2000;Jennekens 1987;Price 2006;Azeem et al. 2014;El Diwani et al. 1994). ...
The phenomenon of fertilizer caking has an impact on the commercial value of the final products. It can occur throughout the life cycle, including production, storage, transport and final agricultural application. Fertilizer caking leads to clumping and agglomeration and presents a significant challenge. This review comprehensively examines the mechanisms underlying granular fertilizer caking, focusing on the complex interactions at the granular level, particularly adhesive and phase contacts. These interactions, including solid–solid and solid–liquid contacts, are pivotal in the agglomeration process, with salt bridges from phase contacts being a critical factor in caking propensity. The review identifies numerous factors influencing fertilizer caking. Internal factors such as chemical composition, particle size, hardness, and moisture content, as well as external factors like weather fluctuations, pressure, storage duration, and the effectiveness of coating agents, profoundly affect caking behavior. By synthesizing existing literature, this work provides valuable insights into the multifaceted nature of granular fertilizer caking, elucidating the underlying mechanisms and factors involved. This review lays the groundwork for future research aimed at mitigating caking challenges in fertilizer production and storage.
... This may be the case in the salt-crust XRD results from Urmia Lake, where the predominant mineral is halite, accounting for more than 97% of all the minerals analyzed. Additionally, the presence of hydrous-metastable salts at operating laboratory conditions can change preferred crystalline orientation through dehydration during XRD scan time (e.g., Holser 1979;Kemp et al. 2016). ...
Urmia Lake resides as a substantial hypersaline lake characterized by notable fluctuations in water salinity, brine composition, and water level over long-term, annual, and seasonal intervals. Extremely rapid water elevation fall (. 7 m) in the last three decades has caused the formation of a salt crust on the lake floor. A manmade stone causeway divided the lake into two relatively deeper northern parts with minimal water inputs and a shallower southern part with maximal river inflows. Restricted water flow through the narrow water passage of the causeway leads to complex salinity processes, brine evolution, and salt-crust formation in Urmia Lake. This research analyzes the ionic composition of lake-sediment and salt-crust pore water, the mineralogy of salt crusts, and the ionic composition of both surface and deep lake waters during both the wet and dry seasons of 2019. The findings indicate that the northern and southern parts of the lake undergo stratification during wet seasons due to significant freshwater input, whereas they become homogenized during dry seasons through progressive evaporative concentration and water mixing. The spatial and temporal variations in the lake brine type (primary Na-Mg-Cl) and ionic composition contribute to the formation of a halite salt crust (NaCl. 97%) with heterogeneous mineralogy and thickness. In Urmia Lake, the variable thickness and mineralogy of the exposed marginal salt crust suggest rapid salt-crust reorganization by annual and seasonal deposition and dissolution processes. Conversely, the submerged central salt crust, with continuous thickening and constant mineralogy, remains unaffected by seasonal variations in brine type and dissolution processes. It is noteworthy to mention that Artemia (a brine shrimp) controls the mineralogy of the lake salt crust through the deposition of calcium and carbonate ions in the form of biochemical fecal pellets.
... Although previous chemical analyses of natural picromerite did not determine As contents, its common association with diverse arsenate minerals 62 suggests that it may contain elevated As contents. In particular, most occurrences of natural picromerite formed with either volcanic fumaroles 22,23 or evaporites 63 . Volcanic gases emitted from fumaroles are often rich in sulfur oxides and hydrogen sulfides as well as many other components, including arsenate. ...
Picromerite K2Mg(SO4)2•6H2O (also known as schoenite, schönite, or sulfate of potash) formed from alkaline lakes by evaporation is an increasingly important chlorine-free fertilizer and has been used to produce other organic fertilizers such as arcanite K2SO4 and boussingaultite (NH4)2Mg(SO4)2•6H2O. Picromerite and boussingaultite, two Tutton’s salts, are also common secondary solid phases in diverse types of mine tailings and play important roles in controlling the mobility and bioavailability of various heavy metal(loid)s, including arsenic. In this study, picromerite crystals containing 64 ppm As have been synthesized at ambient conditions from aqueous solutions by slow evaporation. Arsenic K-edge X-ray absorption near-edge-structure and extended X-ray absorption fine structure data show that the dominant oxidation state is +5 and that As⁵⁺ occupies the S site in picromerite. Single-crystal and powder electron paramagnetic resonance spectra of gamma-ray-irradiated picromerite reveal three arsenic-associated oxyradicals: AsO4²⁻, AsO3²⁻, and AsO2²⁻. The orientations of the principal ⁷⁵As hyperfine directions of the AsO3²⁻ and AsO2²⁻ radicals match the bonding directions of the SO4²⁻ groups in the picromerite structure, further supporting substitutions of their respective diamagnetic precursors AsO4³⁻ and AsO3³⁻ for the sulfate group. These AsO4²⁻, AsO3²⁻, and AsO2²⁻ radicals in picromerite are similar but not identical to their counterparts in boussingaultite and gypsum, suggesting that sulfate minerals are capable of sequestrating both arsenate and arsenite, with important implications for understanding the fate and bioavailability of arsenic associated with agricultural applications of organic fertilizers.
... This basin's edge is found at depth under the North Yorkshire coast [13]. These have been mined for potash for fertiliser, and rock salt for road de-icing since the 1960's [25], and currently mines polyhalite. The Boulby halite is mainly a massive, undeformed halite with an isotropic fabric and crystal grains up to 3 cm in diameter; it is 50 m ± 15 m thick and starts at a depth of 1,100 m [26]. ...
Renewable energy provides a low-carbon alternative to power generation in the UK. However, the resultant supply varies on daily, weekly and seasonal cycles, such that for green energies to be fully exploited new grid-scale energy storage systems must be implemented. Two pilot facilities in Germany and the United States have demonstrated the potential of the Earth as a battery to store compressed air, using off-peak surplus energy. Natural accumulations of salt (halite deposits) in the UK represent a large and untapped natural storage reservoir for compressed air with the ability to provide instantaneous green energy to meet peak demand. To realise the potential of this emerging technology, a detailed knowledge of the relationship between mechanics, chemistry and geological properties is required to optimise cavern design, storage potential and economic feasibility. The variable stresses imposed on the rock matrix by gas storage, combined with the cyclic nature of cavern pressurisation are barriers to deployment that need to be addressed to enable large-scale adoption of schemes. Well-designed field experiments are a lynchpin for advancing research in this area, especially when supported by state-of-the-art characterisation and modelling techniques. The research facility at STFC’s Boulby Underground Laboratory presents the ideal location to tackle these fundamental issues to optimise “Battery Earth”.
... The mineral polyhalite, which has great potential for use in agriculture, may be found in many places across the world, although it is most frequently found in evaporite deposits created by the evaporation of saltwater bodies. The Boulby Mine in North Yorkshire, which has large reserves and is a significant provider of polyhalite-based fertilizers, is one of the country's most well-known polyhalite deposits (Kemp et al., 2016). Another important source is the Zechstein Basin in Germany ( Fig. 1). ...
The challenge of balancing crop growth and environmental sustainability must be solved in modern agriculture by increasing the effectiveness of nutrient use. This chapter examines the advantages of enhanced nutrient use efficiency (NUE) and presents exemplary examples that indicate its favourable effects on environmental performance, business success, and farmer lives. A ground-breaking method to change sustainable farming has been discovered in polyhalites, amazing sedimentary rocks with high nutritional value and slow-release features. Polyhalites lessen waste and environmental deterioration associated with excessive fertilizer usage by effectively supplying crops with necessary nutrients such as potassium, sulphur, magnesium, and calcium. Their slow-release properties guarantee a steady supply of nutrients, improving absorption effectiveness, lowering fertilizer applications, and fostering long-term sustainability. In addition, polyhalites are energy-efficient mineral deposits that need little energy to mine and process. The agriculture sector is ready for a paradigm change toward more effective, financially viable, and ecologically responsible farming techniques as it embraces the promise of polyhalites to nourish crops, safeguard the environment, and build a brighter future.
... Subsequently, the absolute error (∆ AE ), the relative error (∆ RE ), and root mean square error (RMSE) were calculated to indicate the accuracy of these quantitative analysis methods. Although the ∆ AE within 3% was generally defined as "highly accurate" in previous studies [47], the error tended to be proportional to the weight of minerals [48]. Thus, the ±3 wt% may not be a good representation of accuracy. ...
X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, as one of the most powerful methods, has been widely used to identify and quantify minerals in earth science. How to improve the precision of mineral quantitative analysis is still a hot topic. To date, several quantitative methods have been proposed for different purposes and accompanied by diverse software. In this study, three quantitative mineral analysis methods, including the reference intensity ratio (RIR), Rietveld, and full pattern summation (FPS) methods, are compared and evaluated to systematically investigate their accuracy and applicability. The results show that the analytical accuracy of these methods is basically consistent for mixtures free from clay minerals. However, there are significant differences in accuracy for clay-mineral-containing samples. In comparison, it seems that the FPS method has wide applicability, which is more appropriate for sediments. The Rietveld method has been shown to be capable of quantifying complicated non-clay samples with a high analytical accuracy; nevertheless, most conventional Rietveld software fails to accurately quantify phases with a disordered or unknown structure. The RIR method represents a handy approach but with lower analytical accuracy. Overall, the present results are expected to provide a potentially important reference for the quantitative analysis of minerals in sediments.
... Because of the special forming conditions of evaporite, global potash deposits are mainly distributed in closed basins in the 30-60 • north latitude zone [1,3,4], such as the Saskatchewan Basin in Canada [5][6][7][8], Salt Range Basin in Pakistan [9][10][11], Sakon Nakhon Basin in Thailand [12][13][14], Delaware Basin in the USA [15], and some other basins in Europe [16][17][18][19]. In China, potassic salt is mostly produced from brines in the Qaidam Basin in Qinghai province [20][21][22][23][24] and Lop Nor Playa in the Tarim Basin [25][26][27][28][29][30][31]. ...
Lop Nor Playa is the main salt-forming area in the Tarim Basin, which is rich in brine resources. There is a large amount of potassium fertilizer produced from potassium-rich brine in Lop Nor annually, which meets about half of the demands of China’s agricultural potash, along with that produced in the Qaidam Basin. In order to investigate the distribution characteristics of potassium-bearing minerals and the origin of potassium-bearing salts in Lop Nor Playa, mineralogy and hydrogeochemistry studies were carried out. The results showed that there are a large number of polyhalite layers distributed in the Luobei Depression and Xinqing Platform. Brines with high content of K+ and Mg2+ have reactions with calcium sulfate minerals, generating secondary polyhalite layers. Carnallite layers are mainly distributed in subbasins along fault zones in all three mining areas with small size. Ca-Cl-type waters rise to the surface along fault zones and mix with ground water as soon as they appear on the ground, forming the deposits of carnallite and bischofite after evaporation. During the generation of potassic salts, fault zones, on the one hand, control the margin of mining areas and the distribution of polyhalite layers. On the other hand, they act as the migration and reaction space for salt spring water, providing large amounts of ore-forming elements such as Ca2+, K+, and Mg2+. This study provides a theoretical basis for the exploration of potassium-rich brine in the Lop Nor Basin.
... The growing negative K balance and mining without appropriate K replenishment in soils can be checked through the application of multi-nutrient compositions like polyhalite in place of conventional fertilizers. Polyhalite is one such commercially available fertilizer with deposits in the North Sea basin, off the coast of the United Kingdom (Kemp et al. 2016). ...
A field experiment was conducted at ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, Research Farm during winter (rabi) season 2021–22 to evaluate the effect of multi-nutrient carrier polyhalite and its combinations with variable doses of MOP on growth parameters, yield, and productivity of wheat. The application of 100% K (polyhalite), i.e. T8 resulted in significantly higher growth and yield parameters of wheat, viz. plant height, dry matter accumulation, tillers numbers, crop growth rate, leaf area index, grain yield (5.87 tonnes/ha). A 7.5% increase in grain yield was observed with the application of T8 over T11. So, a balanced and prolonged supply of available nutrients with polyhalite to crop in a sustained manner can be maintained.
... The world's largest known deposits of potassium salts are located in Canada (Saskatchewan), Russia (Verkhnekamskoe potash deposit), and Belarus (Starobinskoe potash deposit) [19,20]. Large potash reserves are located in the United States, Germany, and China [21,22]. Potash deposits have been discovered in Central and Southeast Asia, South America, West and East Africa, and North America (previously undeveloped evaporite deposits) [23][24][25]. ...
Potash fertilizer production is one of the most important economic activities. Historically, potash mining has had a significant impact on the environment, often with catastrophic consequences. The purpose of this paper is to summarize the results of studies on the environmental impact of potash mining using the example of the Verkhnekamskoe potash deposit. The deposit is located in the central part of the Solikamsk depression in the Pre-Ural foredeep (Perm Krai, Russia). All the main features and problems of underground mining of water-soluble ores and potassium fertilizer production are considered using the example of one of the world’s largest potash deposits. This paper looks into the specifics of the material composition of waste, its disposal, underground mining issues associated with the solubility of salts, and the risks of groundwater inflow into the mine workings, which causes flooding of mines. The results of all surveys show that potash mining affects the atmosphere, surface water, groundwater, soil, and vegetation. The most effective measure to reduce the adverse environmental impact of potash mining at the Verkhnekamskoe Deposit is hydraulic backfilling of mine chambers, which protects the underground mines from flooding, minimizes ground subsidence, and reduces the area of potash waste.
... In many developing countries, including India, potassium application has been neglected, leading to soil K depletion in agricultural ecosystems and crop yield declines Plants require potassium for proper development. Polyhalite has been explored in North Yorkshire in the United Kingdom as an alternate potassium source (Kemp et al., 2016). Polyhalite, a sulphur mineral in evaporate deposits (K 2 Ca 2 Mg(SO 4 ) 4 . ...
Potassium is involved in a diverse range of processes within plants that are needed for their growth, yield and better quality. The polyhalite as a hydrated evaporate mineral that can be used directly as a source of potassic fertilizer. However, research on polyhalite's appropriateness and effectiveness, the present investigation aimed to evaluate the effect of polyhalite on growth, yield attributes, and yield of blackgram variety ADT 5 at Chinnakandiankuppam village, Vriddhachalam, Cuddalore district, Tamil Nadu, during 2021. The experiment was laid out in randomized block design consisting of ten treatments viz., T1 (absolute control), T2 (-K), T3 (12.5 kg K2O ha-1 as muriate of potash (MOP)), T4 (25 kg K2O ha-1as MOP), T5 (37.5 kg K2O ha-1 as MOP), T6 (50 kg K2O ha-1 as MOP), T7 (12.5 kg K2O ha-1 as polyhalite), T8 (25 kg K2O ha-1 as polyhalite), T9 (37.5 kg K2O ha-1 as polyhalite), T10 (50 kg K2O ha-1 as polyhalite). The experiment revealed that the application of 37.5 kg K2O ha-1 as polyhalite (T9) significantly (5%) enhanced the growth attributes (plant height (38.7 cm), number of branches plant-1 (12.97), leaf area index (2.13), number of nodules plant-1 (18.76) and dry matter production (1972 hg ha-1), yield attributes (pod length (8.21 cm), number of pods plant-1 (20.05), number of seeds pod-1 (7.14) and test weight (3.53 g)) and grain yield (1439 kg ha-1), haulm yield (1876 kg ha-1) of blackgram. Thus the study would be helpful to farmers for yield maximization of blackgram through polyhalite as potassic fertilizer.
