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![Coronary heart disease (CHD) mortality rates associated with tissue HUFA proportions. Results from the United States, Japan, and Greenland were discussed earlier (10,11,12) as were quintile results from the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial (MRFIT) study [■ (13)] and those from Quebec Inuit (14), Quebec Cree (15), and Quebec overall (16). For abbreviation see Figure 1.](profile/William-Lands/publication/10673140/figure/fig2/AS:601775606333450@1520485893336/Coronary-heart-disease-CHD-mortality-rates-associated-with-tissue-HUFA-proportions.png)
Coronary heart disease (CHD) mortality rates associated with tissue HUFA proportions. Results from the United States, Japan, and Greenland were discussed earlier (10,11,12) as were quintile results from the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial (MRFIT) study [■ (13)] and those from Quebec Inuit (14), Quebec Cree (15), and Quebec overall (16). For abbreviation see Figure 1.
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The 2002 ISSFAL Meeting arranged a special evening discussion with professional dietitians about diet-tissue-disease relationships involving essential fatty acids and eicosanoids. The balance of eicosanoid precursors in human tissues differs widely, reflecting voluntary dietary choices among different groups worldwide. An empirical quantitative die...
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Citations
... Type D personality has been identified as an independent risk factor for the incidence and prognosis of CHD. The pathophysiological process of CHD involves activity of omega-6 fatty acids in chronic inflammatory processes in the vascular wall, which promotes the development and growth of atherosclerotic plaques, and coronary events [56]. Omega-3 fatty acids compete for substrates with omega-6 fatty acids and therefore exert anti-inflammatory effects. ...
... alpha-linoleic acid and linoleic acid, respectively) are essential fatty acids that cannot be synthesized in human bodies. The only route to obtain these essential precursors is through dietary intake, and thus food choices have an important effect on tissue levels of both fatty acids and their responses [56]. Fish is a primary food source of omega-3 fatty acids, and fish oil supplements are also commonly used to promote omega-3 fatty acids intake. ...
... Furthermore, the notion that n-6 PUFA are pro-inflammatory and that n-3 PUFA are anti-inflammatory (129,130) contrasts with the new understanding that such broad categorisation of n-6 and n-3 PUFA is far too simplistic (131) and has little to no direct support from studies in humans (37,132,133) . In fact, evidence shows that higher LA levels are associated with reduced inflammatory status (134)(135)(136) . ...
Epidemiological and clinical trial evidence indicates that n -6 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) intake is cardioprotective. Nevertheless, claims that n -6 PUFA intake promotes inflammation and oxidative stress prevail. This narrative review aims to provide health professionals with an up-to-date evidence overview to provide the requisite background to address patient/client concerns about oils containing predominantly unsaturated fatty acids (UFA), including MUFA and PUFA. Edible plant oils, commonly termed vegetable oils, are derived from vegetables, nuts, seeds, fruits and cereal grains. Substantial variation exists in the fatty acid composition of these oils; however, all are high in UFA, while being relatively low in saturated fatty acids (SFA), except for tropical oils. Epidemiological evidence indicates that higher PUFA intake is associated with lower risk of incident CVD and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Additionally, replacement of SFA with PUFA is associated with reduced risk of CVD and T2DM. Clinical trials show higher intake of UFA from plant sources improves major CVD risk factors, including reducing levels of atherogenic lipids and lipoproteins. Importantly, clinical trials show that increased n -6 PUFA (linoleic acid) intake does not increase markers of inflammation or oxidative stress. Evidence-based guidelines from authoritative health and scientific organisations recommend intake of non-tropical vegetable oils, which contain MUFA and n -6 PUFA, as part of healthful dietary patterns. Specifically, vegetable oils rich in UFA should be consumed instead of rich sources of SFA, including butter, tallow, lard, palm and coconut oils.
... Reference values for Body Mass Index (BMI), Mid-Upper Arm Circumference (MUAC) (NIH, 2016;WebMd, 2016), total n-3 LC-PUFA content in blood, ratio of n-3 LC-PUFA to total LC-PUFA (Lands, 2003;Harris, 2007), and recommendent nutrition intake (RNI) essential micronutrients, protein, and energy were obtained from standard sources (Islam et al., 2010;INFS, 2013;UNICEF, 2013). All analyzed data, graphical presentation of data have been customized from the statistical package program R (R Core Team, 2016). ...
Export-orientated shrimp and prawn farming in coastal ghers has been associated with negative environmental, social, and nutritional impacts. This study challenges these perceptions based on field observations from four communities in South West Bangladesh. Most households observed (>60%) were either directly involved in seafood farming or engaged elsewhere in the seafood value chain. Our study set out to establish how the type and location of aquaculture impacted on access to and consumption of aquatic animals. Additionally, we assessed the effects of both household socioeconomic status and intra-household food allocation on individual diet and nutritional outcomes. We used a blended approach, including a 24-h consumption recall on two occasions, analysis of the proximate composition of aquatic animals and biomarkers from whole blood from a sample of the target population. The diverse polyculture systems generated broad social benefits, where “export-oriented” production actually supplied more food locally than to global markets. Key findings: (1) worse-off households achieved higher productivity of farmed aquatic animals on smaller landholding than better-off households with larger landholdings; (2) vegetable production on gher dikes was a significant source of nutrition and income in lower saline gradients; (3) more fish was eaten in lower saline gradients although fish consumption was highly variable within and between households; (4) intra-household allocation of specific foods within diets were similar across communities; (5) recommended nutrient intakes of protein and zinc exceeded daily requirements for adolescent females, but energy, calcium, and iron were below recommended intake levels; (6) n-3 LC-PUFA, expressed as percentage of total fatty acids, in whole blood samples of adolescent females declined with ambient salinity level regardless of household socioeconomic status; (7) analysis of aquatic animals consumed found that mangrove species and tilapia harvested from higher saline ghers contained high levels of desirable PUFAs. These findings suggest that export-driven, extensive coastal aquaculture can be nutrition sensitive when co-products are retained for local consumption.
... The competition for incorporation into membrane lipids of the n-6 and n-3 fatty acids has long been appreciated and quantitative equations have been developed [23]. In Westerners, and increasingly in the whole world, there is a preponderance of n-6 fatty acids in our bodies [24] due mainly to the widespread use of seed oils, i.e., soybean, corn and safflower oils [25]. The enzymes that metabolize LA and ARA are partially or completely saturated and thus minor changes in LA or ARA intake have a diminished effect [26]. ...
Breastfeeding is universally recommended as the optimal choice of infant feeding and consequently human milk has been extensively investigated to unravel its unique nutrient profile. The human milk lipid composition is unique and supplies specifically long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs), in particular, arachidonic acid (ARA, 20:4n–6) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n–3). Arachidonic acid (ARA) is the most predominant long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid in human milk, albeit at low concentrations as compared to other fatty acids. It occurs predominantly in the triglyceride form and to a lesser extent as milk fat globule membrane phospholipids. Human milk ARA levels are modulated by dietary intake as demonstrated by animal and human studies and consequently vary dependent on dietary habits among mothers and regions across the globe. ARA serves as a precursor to eicosanoids and endocannabinoids that also occur in human milk. A review of scientific and clinical studies reveals that ARA plays an important role in physiological development and its related functions during early life nutrition. Therefore, ARA is an important nutrient during infancy and childhood and, as such, appropriate attention is required regarding its nutritional status and presence in the infant diet. Data are emerging indicating considerable genetic variation in encoding for desaturases and other essential fatty acid metabolic enzymes that may influence the ARA level as well as other LC-PUFAs. Human milk from well-nourished mothers has adequate levels of both ARA and DHA to support nutritional and developmental needs of infants. In case breastfeeding is not possible and infant formula is being fed, experts recommend that both ARA and DHA are added at levels present in human milk.
... The oil's remarkable oxidative stability has long been exploited in Africa, especially for meat preservation [40]. Also, the oil in MSC contains some essential FAs (EFAs) linoleic and α-linolenic acids whose dietary incorporation into ADFs would help in the fight against human illnesses like rheumatoid arthritis [41] and diabetics [42]. Therefore, incorporation of MSC into animal diets in Southern African where this product is produced would not only supply much needed protein, energy and other nutrients, but would also enhance the shelf-life and health status of meat and other ADFs that would, consequently, improve health benefits to human consumers. ...
Marula seed cake (MSC) is a nutritionally-rich natural feed resource that can enhance the healthiness of animal-derived foods (ADFs) for human consumption. This study compared the health-related fatty acid (FA) profiles of MSC products from South Africa and Eswatini. Composite samples monthly collected from both countries were analysed for FAs. MSC products from both countries were found to be dominated by oleic acid (>70%), followed by palmitic, linoleic and stearic acids. Consequently, both products had their FA totals dominated by ƩMUFA followed by ƩSFA, ƩPUFA, Ʃn-6 PUFA and Ʃn-3 PUFA. Both oleic and stearic acids were higher (P < 0.01) whilst linoleic (P < 0.001), α-linolenic (P < 0.05), margaric (P < 0.05), palmitoleic (P < 0.05) and eicosatrienoic (P < 0.05) acids were lower in South African in comparison to Eswatini MSC. Consequently, South African MSC had higher ƩMUFA (P < 0.01) but lower ƩPUFA (P < 0.001), Ʃn-6 PUFA (P < 0.001) and Ʃn-3 PUFA (P < 0.05). Also, Eswatini MSC had higher n-6 : n-3 PUFA, PUFA : SFA (P = 0.001) and PUFA : MUFA (P < 0.05) ratios. Further, MSC products from both countries had similarly (P > 0.05) low atherogenicity and high desaturase indices. In conclusion, both country products are rich particularly in oleic acid and their incorporation into farm animal diets would increase content of the MUFA in ADFs and, consequently, improve health benefits to human consumers.
... 145 Thus, a ratio of omega-3 to omega-6 (n-3:n-6) was suggested to represent the body's potential inflammatory response to insult. 146 As increased inflammatory states have been found to play a role in the pathophysiology of depression, 147 bipolar disorder, 148 schizophrenia, 149 and cardiovascular disorders, 147 increasing the 'good' omega-3 fatty acids and lowering the 'bad' omega-6 fatty acids could be beneficial. ...
The American Psychiatric Association (APA) currently recommends the use of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation for depressive disorders, impulse-control disorders, and psychotic disorders in treatment guidelines. This review examines the evidence for efficacy of omega-3 fatty acids in depressive disorders, bipolar disorder, anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and psychosis. Meta-analysis of randomized-controlled trials of omega-3 fatty acids for depression are inconclusive, with strong evidence of publication bias, sizable heterogeneity between included studies, and substantial methodological shortcomings in included trials. The large amount of heterogeneity in findings of RCTs of omega-3 fatty acids for unipolar depression is likely attributable to highly heterogeneous sample populations that are given different omega-3 supplements [which differ widely in eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) content, ratio, and dosage] as either adjunctive or monotherapy of other existing treatments, and then measure several different outcomes of depression symptomatology with likely incomplete blinding. Evidence of efficacy of omega-3 supplementation in treating psychosis, PTSD, anxiety, and bipolar mania is minimal. The current guidelines recommending the use of omega-3 fatty acids in adulthood psychiatric conditions should be revisited, especially given several recent negative studies examining the effects of omega-3 fatty acids for cardiovascular disease. Recommending likely ineffective treatment to patients, no matter how benign the side-effect profile, has opportunity cost (e.g. other more effective medications or therapies not being utilized) and likely affects patient compliance with other evidence-based treatments.
... A group of lipids that have received special attention over the last decades are the omega-3 (n-3) long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA), particularly regarding how these relate proportionally to omega-6 LC-PUFAs in blood and tissue [20]. A high fraction of n-3 LC-PUFAs have been suggested to positively contribute to cognition [21] and prevent disease [20,22,23]. ...
... In accordance with the other data, fatty acid composition in plasma and SBF were similar and highly correlated (Additional file 3: Figure S3A and B). The proportion of n-3 highly unsaturated fatty acids (20)(21)(22) carbons with at least three double bonds, HUFAs) was strongly correlated between plasma and SBF (Fig. 7). However, plasma had a slightly larger fraction of n-3 HUFAs than SBF. ...
Background:
Recent technical advances in the extraction of dermal interstitial fluid (ISF) have stimulated interest in using this rather unexploited biofluid as an alternative to blood for detection and prediction of disease. However, knowledge about the presence of useful biomarkers for health monitoring in ISF is still limited. In this study, we characterized the lipidome of human suction blister fluid (SBF) as a surrogate for pure ISF and compared it to that of plasma.
Methods:
Plasma and SBF samples were obtained from 18 healthy human volunteers after an overnight fast. Total lipids were extracted and analyzed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. One hundred ninety-three lipid species covering 10 complex lipid classes were detected and quantified in both plasma and SBF using multiple reaction monitoring. A fraction of the lipid extract was subjected to alkaline transesterification and fatty acid methyl esters were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.
Results:
The total concentration of lipids in SBF was 17% of the plasma lipid concentration. The molar fraction of lipid species within lipid classes, as well as total fatty acids, showed a generally high correlation between plasma and SBF. However, SBF had larger fractions of lysophospholipids and diglycerides relative to plasma, and consequently less diacylphospholipids and triglycerides. Principal component analysis revealed that the interindividual variation in SBF lipid profiles was considerably larger than the within-subject variation between plasma and SBF.
Conclusions:
Plasma and SBF lipid profiles show high correlation and SBF could be used interchangeably with blood for the analysis of major lipids used in health monitoring.
... The n6 and n3 PUFA intake favors too much n6 PUFA. This presupposes an adequate intake of PUFA precursors (n6 linoleic and n3 alpha-linolenic acids) to form long-chain LC-PUFAs (n6-AA and n3-EPA), which, in turn, act as eicosanoid precursors which determine the balance and effects of eicosanoids in the body [24]. Arachidonic acid is converted to thromboxane-type eicosanoids via cyclo-oxygenase enzyme, while EPA is converted to prostacycline, antagonizing the conversion of AA to eicosanoids. ...
The lipids from gonads and polyhydroxynaphthoquinone pigments from body walls of sea urchins are intensively studied. However, little is known about the body wall (BW) lipids. Ethanol extract (55 °C) contained about equal amounts of saturated (SaFA) and monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) representing 60% of total fatty acids, with myristic, palmitic and eicosenoic acids as major SaFAs and MUFAs, respectively. Non-methylene-interrupted dienes (13%) were composed of eicosadienoic and docosadienoic acids. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) included two main components, n6 arachidonic and n3 eicosapentaenoic acids, even with equal concentrations (15 μg/mg) and a balanced n6/n3 PUFA ratio (0.86). The UPLC-ELSD analysis showed that a great majority of the lipids (80%) in the ethanolic extract were phosphatidylcholine (60 μg/mg) and phosphatidylethanolamine (40 μg/mg), while the proportion of neutral lipids remained lower than 20%. In addition, alkoxyglycerol derivatives—chimyl, selachyl, and batyl alcohols—were quantified. We have assumed that the mechanism of action of body wall lipids in the present study is via the inhibition of MAPK p38, COX-1, and COX-2. Our findings open the prospective to utilize this lipid fraction as a source for the development of drugs with anti-inflammatory activity.
... HUFA have a lower prevalence of cardiovascular disease than populations having more than half [3]. Such evidence led to the hypothesis that eating foods with nutrients that maintain less than 50% n-6 in HUFA is an effective form of primary prevention of cardiovascular disease [4]. ...
... Removing these items leaves the remaining 90 items with an average score of -4, corresponding to a HUFA balance near 60% n-6 in HUFA [24]. That balance links to a lower risk for CVD than one near 80% n-6 in HUFA [3]. ...
... That impairment may be less for people with less than 50% n-6 in HUFA [3]. ...
A hyperbolic, saturable, competitive dynamic of ligand binding to metabolic enzymes and lipid mediator receptors gives non-linear dose-response interactions that need careful management when planning or interpreting nutrient-based interventions. Relatively indiscriminate metabolism during accumulation of HUFA from n-3 and n-6 nutrients allows the amounts of n-3 and n-6 nutrients to determine the HUFA balance accumulated in tissue phospholipids. However, when HUFA-based eicosanoid actions are more intense with n-6 than n-3 mediators, they cause healthy physiology to shift toward pathophysiology. The proportion of n-6 in tissue HUFA directly relates to the severity of conditions caused by excessive n-6 actions. In the absence of n-3 nutrients, dietary linoleate (18:2n-6) has a very narrow therapeutic window below 1 percent of food energy, and it is widened by n-3 nutrients. The predictable quantitative dynamics of competing n-3 and n-6 nutrients allows design of successful preventive nutrition protocols that confirm and extend the epidemiologically observed benefits of n-3 nutrients.
... The %n-6 in HUFA biomarker was first seen to relate linearly to CHD deaths in 1992 [2]. This was confirmed with more data in 2003 [26], discussed in 2009 [25] and discussed as a valid health risk assessment biomarker in 2015 [14]. ...
... With a growing recognition of the need by clinical researchers to develop successful large-scale preventive nutrition interventions [26], approaches to designing low-cost high-throughput assays were discussed at the 2004 ISSFAL workshop. Discussants regarded the finger-tip blood spot on filter paper to be less labor-intensive than centrifuging to obtain red blood cell (RBC) membranes [14,27] and there was considerable debate about the use of the "Omega-3 Index" [28] versus a HUFA-based approach [2,3]. ...
... Explicit information from finger-tip blood-spot assays plus explicit information on foods that either raise or lower the blood biomarker empowers participants of wellness programs to choose voluntarily a HUFA balance that fits their own personal priorities. Observational data from the longitudinal MRFIT study [60] show the quintile with an estimated HUFA balance near 63% n-6 in HUFA had nearly half the cardiovascular deaths compared to those with an estimated HUFA balance near 80% n-6 in HUFA [12,26]. ...
Careful handling of data on fatty acid composition is needed when interpreting evidence for the influence of dietary n-3 and n-6 essential fatty acids on brain function and health conditions. The relative dietary supplies of competing n-3 and n-6 nutrients determine the balance of 20- and 22-carbon n-3 and n-6 highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA) which accumulate competitively at the 2-position of tissue phospholipids. In turn, the HUFA balance expressed as the %n-6 in HUFA affects the likely intensity of n-6 eicosanoid actions in diverse health conditions. As a result, measures of HUFA balance are important, valid biomarkers for designing and monitoring successful preventive nutrition interventions. Successful interventions must also consider the ability of fatty acid ligands to saturate binding sites of enzymes and receptors and give paradoxical dose-response results.
