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This work provides a survey on past nuclear merchant ships experience. On light of new regulations on CO2, SOx and NOx, the options for clean naval propulsion need to be studied. Despite many efforts, the only already sea proven emissions-free energy is nuclear power of pressurized water reactor type. Given the past experience on the field, this wo...
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... AI is projected to reduce overall operational costs while enhancing both the safety of the ships and the security of the nuclear materials on board [9]. Notably, such technologies were unavailable during the operation of the first nuclear-powered ships [1]. Their integration now promises to deliver substantial advancements, paving the way for more efficient and secure nuclear maritime operations [4]. ...
... Nuclear power has been a subject of interest in transportation, particularly maritime ships, since the early days of the nuclear era. However, the high cost of operation eliminated the interest in developing nuclear-powered vessels for many decades [1]. This situation has recently changed due to global decarbonization goals and the advent of innovative reactor technologies such as small modular reactors [2]. ...
... The concept of nuclear-powered commercial (i.e., for propulsion and onboard energy supply) vessels is not new. The first commercial ship equipped with a nuclear reactor was launched in the 1960s, with a few others following in subsequent years [1]. However, for various reasons-primarily financial-these nuclear-powered commercial ships were decommissioned early, and this type of vessel did not gain the market traction initially anticipated. ...
Decarbonization stands as one of humanity’s most pressing challenges, demanding collective efforts from multiple sectors to meet established goals. The transportation industry plays a pivotal role in this endeavor, with the maritime sector offering significant potential to reduce emissions. As a cornerstone of global goods and commodity transport, the maritime industry is uniquely positioned to contribute meaningfully to the global drive for lower carbon emissions. Artificial intelligence (AI), with its profound influence across diverse domains, is anticipated to play a vital role in supporting the nuclear shipping industry on its path to a decarbonized future. Specifically, AI provides tools to make nuclear power on ships a more economically viable solution while enhancing the safety and security of nuclear systems. This paper explores AI tools as an enabler for adopting nuclear-powered ships, delving into the challenges and opportunities associated with their implementation. Ultimately, it highlights AI’s role in fostering sustainable nuclear-powered maritime solutions, which align with and contribute to achieving global decarbonization goals.
... Nuclear ship propulsion is currently used in military ships and icebreakers [38]. Examples of other nuclear-powered ships include Otto Hahn, NS Savannah, Mutsu, and NS Sevmorput [39,40]. ...
In response to global initiatives to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, the maritime industry must adopt green propulsion solutions. This paper analyses the operational potential of very high-temperature reactors (VHTRs) as an innovative propulsion source for large container ships. Calculations are carried out for ships produced between 2018 and 2020 with a capacity of more than 20,000 TEU. For these ships, the average power of the main system is calculated at around 64.00 kW. The study focuses on a propulsion engine system with features such as extraction control, bypass control, and either one or two turbines. The direct thermodynamic cycle of the VHTR offers high efficiency, smaller sizes, and flexible power control, thus eliminating the need for helium storage and enabling rapid power changes. In addition, this article highlights the advantages of bypass control of the turbine, which avoids the need to shut down the propulsion engine in the harbour. The findings suggest that nuclear propulsion could play a crucial role in the future of maritime technology.
... Nuclear-powered ships generate steam using onboard nuclear power plants to drive turbines [13,14]. The USS Nautilus, launched by the USA Navy in 1955 as the first nuclearpowered ship, demonstrated nuclear propulsion and influenced submarine technology in Russia, China, France, the UK, and India [15,16]. ...
... Despite the advantages, deploying civilian nuclear vessels presents significant challenges. Public opposition, driven by safety risks, regulatory hurdles, and concerns over nuclear proliferation, is a major barrier [6,8,13]. While nuclear technology can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions, its adoption in merchant shipping is limited due to high costs, equipment vulnerabilities, and risks of collisions or spills. ...
... The history of nuclear-powered vessels reveals significant regulatory vulnerabilities, highlighted by incidents like the 1962 discharge of low-level radioactive waste by the NS Savannah, the 1968 Suez Canal passage denial for the Otto Hahn due to insufficient safety documentation, and the 1974 radioactive leak from the Mutsu during its maiden voyage [13]. These events underscored the need for stricter safety regulations and design improvements. ...
Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) offer transformative potential for maritime propulsion by providing significant benefits such as reduced emissions, enhanced fuel efficiency, and greater operational autonomy. However, their integration into the maritime sector presents complex regulatory challenges due to the convergence of nuclear and maritime laws. A unified, harmonized regulatory framework is essential to ensure safety, radioactive waste management, and accident prevention. While initiatives led by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and International Maritime Organization (IMO) are progressing, key gaps remain, particularly regarding maritime-specific risk assessments, emergency response protocols, and cross-border regulatory harmonization. Enhanced collaboration between regulatory bodies, pilot projects, and transparent engagement with stakeholders will be critical to refining safety protocols and accelerating regulatory alignment. Public acceptance remains a vital factor, requiring rigorous environmental impact assessments (EIAs) and transparent communication to build trust and align SMR-powered vessels with global sustainability objectives. While challenges persist, they also present opportunities for innovation and international cooperation. By addressing these regulatory and public acceptance challenges through coordinated efforts and policies, SMR propulsion can become a cornerstone of a more sustainable, efficient, and technologically advanced maritime sector. Successful deployment will position SMRs as a key component of the global energy transition, driving progress toward low-carbon shipping and a greener maritime industry.
... Integrating heat pipes with MSRs eliminates in-core thermal stress and the need for pumps, which are common in traditional MSRs. This passive operation of heat pipes in MSRs makes them particularly suitable for maritime applications due to their compact design and high energy density [53,54]. However, heat pipe-cooled MSRs in ocean environments face unique challenges not encountered in terrestrial applications, which typically rely on static conditions and natural convection of molten salt. ...
Marine sources contribute approximately 2% of global energy-related CO₂ emissions, with the shipping industry accounting for 87% of this total, making it the fifth-largest emitter globally. Environmental regulations by the International Maritime Organization (IMO), such as the MARPOL (International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships) treaty, have driven the exploration of alternative green energy solutions, including nuclear-powered ships. These ships offer advantages like long operational periods without refueling and increased cargo space, with around 200 reactors already in use on naval vessels worldwide. Among advanced reactor concepts, the molten salt reactor (MSR) is particularly suited for marine applications due to its inherent safety features, compact design, high energy density, and potential to mitigate nuclear waste and proliferation concerns. However, MSR systems face significant challenges, including tritium production, corrosion issues, and complex behavior of volatile fission products. Understanding the impact of marine-induced motion on the thermal–hydraulic behavior of MSRs is crucial, as it can lead to transient design basis accident scenarios. Furthermore, the adoption of MSR technology in the shipping industry requires overcoming regulatory hurdles and achieving global consensus on safety and environmental standards. This review assesses the current progress, challenges, and technological readiness of MSRs for marine applications, highlighting future research directions. The overall technology readiness level (TRL) of MSRs is currently at 3. Achieving TRL 6 is essential for progress, with individual components needing TRLs of 4–8 for a demonstration reactor. Community Readiness Levels (CRLs) must also be addressed, focusing on public acceptance, safety, sustainability, and alignment with decarbonization goals.
... Russia has the world's largest icebreaker fleet and has been using nuclear icebreakers to guarantee the accessibility of the Arctic routes for maritime transport (Zhang 2021; Goodman and Kertysova 2020) (Fig. 2). The Soviet icebreaker Lenin equipped with three 90 MWt OK-150 reactors, which was commissioned in 1959, made history as the first civilian nuclear-powered surface vessel in the world (World Nuclear Association 2023; Freire and de Andrade 2015). Propelled by the surging power of the nuclear reactors, the Lenin can travel at a top speed of 18 knots in clear waters and can maintain a speed of around 2 knots when encountering ice of 2.4-m thick (Alexandrov et al. 1959;Bayraktar and Pamik 2023). ...
The Arctic region is facing growing demands for energy to support various economic activities, while also grappling with the profound impacts of climate change. Black carbon particulate matter emissions reduction is a key objective to mitigate the susceptibility of the Arctic’s ecosystems to the impact of climate change. Nuclear power has been suggested as a potential source of clean energy to decarbonize maritime transport in the Arctic. However, although the operation of nuclear-powered vessels and floating nuclear power platforms in the region ensures energy security and reduces black carbon emissions, it may pose significant risks of nuclear material release and radiological accidents and raise concerns about improper radioactive waste disposal. In regulating these nuclear-powered vessels and floating nuclear power platforms in the Arctic, the existing international legal regime faced a series of challenges. This research employs a method of policy analysis to analyze these legal challenges and explores how the international community could work together to cope with the challenges that arise in the Arctic during the operation of nuclear-powered vessels and platforms for maritime decarbonization purposes.
... To meet the new global demand, modern nuclear reactors, including IC-FR, are designed to have the capability of small and modular, transportable, and load-following. With this capability, IC-FR can be deployed in many applications: marine, on a microgrid, on grids with large penetration of intermittent renewable capacity, and in remote site areas (Freire and De Andrade, 2015;Michaelson and Jiang, 2021;Vujić et al., 2012). ...
This paper presents a detailed procedure for implementing the inverted fuel geometry to a fast reactor to improve its safety system and economy. The study is starting from the fuel unit cell, fuel assembly, reactor core, and burnup analysis. A proposed multivariable graph (, , –,) introduced at the fuel unit cell level provides comprehensive thermalhydraulic and neutronic parameters in a single graph, allowing for an efficient optimization process. The fuel unit cell study reveals that the inverted fuel design has a higher fuel volume fraction and lower core pressure drop than conventional pin-typed fuel. This is beneficial for the reactor economy and enhances the reliability of the safety system. With the inverted fuel design, the primary loop can save pumping power by up to 40 % and provides an excess driving force for natural circulation. The male–female axial grid structure separating the fuel assembly potentially eliminates coolant flow path restriction and fretting issues. The core is named the Inverted Core Fast Reactor (IC-FR), an LBE-cooled fast SMR designed to generate 60 MWth for at least 40 years of full-power operation without refueling and fuel shuffling. IC-FR is a transportable reactor and has load following capability that can be deployed for many applications, including marine and land-based applications, and stand alone or mixing power grid. The burnup study of IC-FR reveals that the balance of neutron leakage and fissile inventory yields a small reactivity swing (<1$) for 40 years. This study extensively utilizes Monte Carlo (MC) code MCS for neutronic calculation. Owing to the high computational expense of MC code, the approaches to optimize the MC usage are also presented.
... Considering the six-degree-of-freedom movements of the ships and other risk situations such as collisions and grounding, aft the cargo tanks, below the foreword end of the accommodation is the suitable place for reactor installation. Freire and de Andrade (2015) ensured a survey about the utilization of the past nuclear merchant ships. They assessed the nuclear systems as one of the alternative energy systems that provides an air emission-free propulsion. ...
The utilization of alternative fuels such as LNG, methanol, hydrogen, ammonia, and nuclear energy on marine vessels is quite critical to cope with the challenging air pollution regulations set by IMO and to realize global de-carbonization strategies. Nuclear energy has come to the fore with high and sustainable energy density as well as a carbon-free feature among the other potential alternative maritime fuels. Nuclear energy has been used successfully for icebreakers, submarines, and naval vessels up to now and it has been researched for commercial ships, despite a few unsuccessful projects because nuclear energy brings certain difficulties during its utilization, especially in commercial ships. That’s why a SWOT analysis has been performed to determine all internal and external factors on the utilization of nuclear energy in commercial ships as a maritime fuel. The SWOT factors and sub-factors have been established with the aid of comparable energy studies in the literature and maritime sector reports. Twelve marine experts with an average of 12.8 years of experience have participated in a survey to determine the priority weight of each main and sub-factors. Opportunity and strength aspects have the highest weight with 0.362 and 0.302 respectively. On the other hand, threats have a substantial amount of weight with 0.212. Being eco-friendly, reducing dependency on fossil fuels, and preventing fuel fluctuations constitute the three most prominent features among the sub-factors. However, safety and security challenges, which are 4th place among the sub-factors, should be eliminated as much as possible for successful applications of nuclear energy. Experience gathered from past and existing nuclear-powered marine vessels will have been beneficial to overcome difficulties in the utilization of nuclear energy in commercial ships.
... "Nuclear ship propulsion during operation emits no CO2, NOX, SOX, or particulate emissions" [7]. Using nuclear propulsion could also avoid the occurrence of maritime oil spills, which occur frequently [8]. Moreover, as the scaling up of the production of green ammonia, methanol, and hydrogen has met technical hurdles, the shipping industry has been increasingly interested in nuclear power propulsion. ...
... As their operating costs were high, the ship's nuclear reactors were removed in 1979. The Otto Hahn was then converted into a conventional dieselpowered ship [8]. ...
... Economically, the development of nuclear power systems and their application in maritime transport can be beneficial. Nuclear power allows ships to operate for extended periods without the need for refueling, enhancing their autonomy and insulating them from fuel price fluctuations [8,19]. Research has shown that a key distinction between conventional large container ships and those powered by nuclear energy is in the significant difference in fuel consumption. ...
In recent years, the use of nuclear energy as propulsion for merchant ships has been proposed as a means of promoting the transition toward maritime decarbonization and environmentally sustainable shipping. However, there are concerns that nuclear-powered merchant ships could pose risks to the marine environment in the event of accidents, such as collisions, machinery failure or damage, fire, or explosions. The current international regulatory framework for nuclear-powered merchant ships is insufficient to address these risks. This research aims to address this gap by conducting a policy analysis of the existing regulations and a critical examination of their effectiveness in addressing the environmental risks of nuclear-powered merchant ships. Through this analysis, the study identifies the shortcomings and insufficiencies in the current framework and explores potential solutions to improve it, with the goal of enhancing the international community’s ability to mitigate the potential impacts of radioactive marine pollution from nuclear-propelled ships in an era of maritime decarbonization.
... The power of propulsion reactors used for submarines is from 10 to 200 MWth and for some large vessels up to 300 MWth (Ragheb 2011). In addition to submarines and aircraft carriers, propulsion reactors have been used in some merchant ships such as Savannah, Otto Hahn, and MUTSU, as well as in Russian icebreakers (Freire and de Andrade 2015;Yu 2020). In recent years, efforts have been made to reduce the fuel enrichment of nuclear propulsion reactors to below 20%. ...
Today, nuclear reactors, especially small reactors, have been significantly welcomed in different countries and have various applications, including use as desalination plants, naval propulsions, etc. During the operation of the reactor, different types of radioisotopes are produced, some of which have very high activity and half-life. The type and amount of radioisotopes produced depends on the type of fuel used, the level of enrichment and the operating time of the reactor. The atomic density and activity of the most important radioisotopes for a typical reactor with two types of high and low enrichment fuel have been calculated in terms of time using MCNPX and CINDER codes. The activity of some of these radioisotopes is high and it is necessary to pay attention to possible environmental hazards. In this research, using the MCNPX Monte Carlo code, the core of a small nuclear reactor proposed as a Virginia class submarine propulsion with a power of 150 MWth was modeled. Using the BURN and KCODE cards in this code as well as the CINDER code, the fuel burnup calculations of the core of this naval reactor have been performed. For this reactor, there are two types of metal alloy fuels, including the high-enrichment UO2-Zr fuel and the low-enrichment U-10Mo fuel, and fuel burnup calculations have been performed for both fuels. After calculations, different types of radioisotopes were identified and changes in atomic density and activity quantities were calculated for the most important of these radioisotopes with high half-life during cycle and compared.
... NPoMS came to reality in 1962 when NS [Nuclear Ship] Savannah has been commissioned, ten years after the launching of USS Nautilus. The purpose of Savannah was to demonstrate the viability and safety of the technology as well as to gain experience in nonmilitary operations rather than to secure financial gains (Freire and Andrade 2015;Dade and Witzig 1974). She was capable of transporting both cargo and passengers. ...
... Among them was one that was designed to also serve as a cargo ship, NS Sevmorput. Commissioned in 1988 (two years after Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant accident), she is still active despite some resistance from port authorities reluctant to accept her entry (Freire and Andrade 2015). The ground for the latter are fears related to nuclear safety. ...
... If public acceptance for NPoMS was low, these accidents only made it worse. Noteworthy, public does not normally raise similarly big concerns towards nuclear-powered vessels operated by military (Freire and Andrade 2015). ...
Modern industries often attempt to implement innovations that have a disruptive potential. In shipping, this included a largely unsuccessful introduction of nuclear propulsion in late 20th century, among other concepts. Nowadays, introduction of increased autonomy is being associated with prospects of various industry-wide benefits, but is also burdened with serious obstacles. The objective of this study is to investigate reasons behind the failure of nuclear-powered merchant ships introduction and whether lessons learnt from it can be applied to the prospective implementation of autonomous merchant ships. It advocates that three aspects of maritime technology are crucial for its successful implementation: perceived level of safety, economical feasibility, and legal setup.
