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Conceptual framework for physical training in professional basketball, adapted from the work by Jeffries et al. [12] Prescription represents the short and long-term planning and execution of training, competition and travel over the course of the season (i.e., nature and organization of training sessions and travel) External load represents the physical demands associated with training, competition, and travel during the season, and training load is the specific stimulus induced by both training sessions and competition. Internal load represents the psychophysiological responses occurring during the execution of training. Contextual factors are defined as factors that are not part of the main training process, such as environmental, social, and cultural factors, but can influence the training process or outcome. Individual factors are characteristics of the individual athlete, such as genetics, psychological traits and states, and training background, which can influence the training process or outcome. Training effects can be acute or chronic, and positive or negative, effects caused and occurring after the training session, and can be assessed using functional, subjective, physiological, biomechanical and cognitive measures. The bidirectional arrow represents a reciprocal nature of interactions between training effects and individual/contextual factors. For example, a negative training effect (e.g., increased fatigue or poor sleep) can act as an individual factor influencing the internal training load in the subsequent session. Sports performance outcomes are defined as the result of the balance between positive and negative training effects.
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This study examined associations between cumulative training load, travel demands and recovery days with athlete-reported outcome measures (AROMs) and countermovement jump (CMJ) performance in professional basketball. Retrospective analysis was performed on data collected from 23 players (mean±SD: age = 24.7±2.5 years, height = 198.3±7.6 cm, body m...
Citations
... 9 Different frameworks and guidelines have been suggested for collecting reliable CMJ data, as well as metric selection processes. [9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16] For instance, Mercer et al. have highlighted that in order to improve the reliability and sensitivity of CMJ-derived variables, it is recommended that practitioners use the average of multiple CMJ trials (e.g. three trials) and regularly reassess measurement characteristics specific to the cohort and environment. 12 Furthermore, Kershner et al. 15 have highlighted the importance of considering that specific instruction can significantly alter the efficiency and performance of a skill such as the vertical jump. ...
... [9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16] For instance, Mercer et al. have highlighted that in order to improve the reliability and sensitivity of CMJ-derived variables, it is recommended that practitioners use the average of multiple CMJ trials (e.g. three trials) and regularly reassess measurement characteristics specific to the cohort and environment. 12 Furthermore, Kershner et al. 15 have highlighted the importance of considering that specific instruction can significantly alter the efficiency and performance of a skill such as the vertical jump. It appears that using consistent verbal instructions, paralleled with frequent assessments of multiple CMJ trials and the use of force plates sampling at a high enough frequency, positioned on a firm and stable surface sets the foundation for gathering quality data. ...
... Procedures for CMJ testing were adapted from the previous literature. 12,20,21 All testing was conducted at the beginning of respective weight room-based resistance training sessions, following a dynamic warmup led by a certified strength and conditioning coach. Testing was conducted using unidimensional dual force plates (Hawkin Dynamics, Westbrook, ME, USA) sampling at 1000 Hz. ...
Recent literature has shown that the provision of feedback can enhance vertical jump performance acutely, as well as chronically when implemented during phases of training. The aim of our study was to investigate the influence of two types of visual feedback on performance and variability of countermovement jump-derived force-time characteristics in a cohort of male and female National Collegiate Athletic Association Division 1 basketball players. Specifically, individual visual feedback (IVF) was compared to a form of social comparison feedback (SCF), and authors hypothesized there to be performance increases and more stable measures in the SCF condition. In line with this hypothesis, findings suggested significantly enhanced performance in the SCF condition for seven out of eight force-time metrics (e.g. jump height and reactive strength index modified). However, given the small between-condition effect sizes, differences between conditions may lack practical significance. Furthermore, findings suggested less between-jump variability in the SCF condition, compared to the IVF condition, making for a more stable assessment. This in particular makes for more reliable measures, for which when studied over time, more subtle changes in performance may be observed. In summary, our findings highlight acutely enhanced vertical jump performance, and more stable measures, when athletes are exposed to an SCF condition, compared to a normal IVF condition. Practitioners are encouraged to consider these findings when planning vertical jump assessments and are discouraged from implementing different types of feedback at random, especially when measuring performance over time.
... Given the nature of basketball as a high-intensity intermittent physical activity, which is highly dependent on both the aerobic and anaerobic components [57], preparation for these actions and the recovery [58] from exposure to them seems crucial to a welldeveloped training program. In this sense, studies related to HRV in basketball have aimed for different goals and objectives, as previously mentioned in this review, but the main and overall interest seems to be the different and specific branches or components that this variable can provide to interpret a holistic adaptation to the training process [59,60]. ...
The main aim of this narrative review is to assess the existing body of scientific literature on heart rate variability (HRV) in relation to basketball, focusing on its use as a measure of internal load and vagal nerve responses. Monitoring HRV offers insights into the autonomic function and training-induced adaptations of basketball players. Various HRV measurement protocols, ranging from short-term to longer durations, can be conducted in different positions and conditions, such as rest, training, and sleep, to determine this key metric. Consistency and individualization in measurement protocols, responding to the athlete's specific characteristics, is crucial for reliable HRV data and their interpretation. Studies on HRV in basketball have explored psychological adaptation, training effects, individual differences, recovery, and sleep quality. Biofeedback techniques show positive effects on HRV and anxiety reduction, potentially enhancing performance and stress management. The scientific literature on HRV in basketball could benefit from studies involving longer monitoring periods to identify significant trends and results related to training and recovery. Longitudinal HRV monitoring in teams with intense travel schedules could reveal the impact on athletes of all levels and ages, and, in this regard, individualized interpretation, considering the subjective recovery and fitness levels of athletes, is recommended to optimize training programs and performance. HRV provides insights into training and competitive loads, aiding in determining exercise intensities and training status. Additionally, HRV is linked to recovery and sleep quality, offering valuable information for optimizing player performance and well-being. Overall, HRV is a reliable tool for adjusting training programs to meet the specific needs of basketball players.
... The disparity in external training loads between the current academy and previously published data in professional teams could be due to competition loads not being included in this study. Whilst we recognise this as an unavoidable limitation in our analyses, it's well documented in the industry that the developmental focus of academy settings, more time, and thus more training load is likely attributed to training as opposed to the focal point of professional teams maintaining readiness to perform (Mercer et al., 2022). Crucially, this highlights the role basketball academies play in bridging the gap for physical preparation between junior and senior basketball to better transition players into higher-level environments (i.e., from level 2 to level 3 and onwards as per McKay and colleagues (McKay et al., 2022)). ...
This study describes the training demands of highly trained male youth basketball players, based on training year, term and playing position. Data was collected from 41 male youth basketballers over two seasons from all on-court coach-led training sessions utilising an LPS. Linear mixed-models and pairwise comparisons were used to analyse by training year (Y1, Y2 and Y3), term (T1, T2, T3 and T4) and playing position (Backcourt, Frontcourt). Results showed no differences in external load metrics between training years. Significant differences existed between training terms, with total distance greater in both T3 and T4 than T1 and 2 (p < 0.03). Total PlayerLoad was significantly greater in T4 than T1 (p < 0.001) and T3 (p = 0.004). Distance/min was greater in T2, T3 and T4 than T1 (p < 0.01). PlayerLoad/min was higher in T4 than T1 and T2 (p < 0.01). Backcourt players showed significantly greater distance/min (p = 0.011), PlayerLoad/ min (p = 0.011) and deceleration counts (p < 0.001). Overall, limited year-on-year change existed in external training load metrics (p > 0.05), though volume (p < 0.001) and intensity (p < 0.001) differed between terms. Backcourt players completed higher intensities (p = 0.011) than Frontcourt players. This study provides a description of external loads of training in highly trained youth basketball players assisting coaches and performance practitioners to better understand physical demands within youth basketball development pathways. ARTICLE HISTORY
... Players are often exposed to very intense neuromuscular actions, such as jumping to rebound or shooting (Cherni et al., 2021). Therefore, the forces that players experience are a significant concern (Mercer et al., 2022). Ensuring the most appropriate conditions to cope with these demands in both match and training contexts is crucial. ...
Enhancing peak landing forces and ensuring faster stabilization in the lower limbs during jumping activities can significantly improve performance and decrease the risk of injury among basketball players. This study aimed to compare the effects of unilateral (uPJT) and bilateral plyometric jump training (bPJT) programs on various performance measures, including countermovement jump (CMJ), squat jump (SJ), and single-leg land and hold (SLLH) test outcomes, assessed using force plates. A randomized multi-arm study design was employed, comprising two experimental groups (n = 25; uPJT and n = 25; bPJT) and one control group (n = 25), conducted with youth male regional-level basketball players (16.3 ± 0.6 years old). Participants underwent assessment twice, both before and after an 8-week intervention training period. The uPJT program exclusively involved plyometric drills (e.g., vertical jump exercises; horizontal jump exercises) focusing on single-leg exercises, whereas the bPJT program utilized drills involving both legs simultaneously. The outcomes analyzed included CMJ peak landing force, CMJ peak power, SJ peak force, SJ maximum negative displacement, SLLH time to stabilization, and SLLH peak landing force. The control group exhibited significantly greater SLLH time to stabilization compared to both the uPJT (p < 0.001) and bPJT (p < 0.030) groups. Additionally, time to stabilization was also significantly higher in bPJT than in uPJT (p = 0.042). Comparisons between groups in regards SLLH peak landing force after intervention revealed that the value was significantly smaller in uPJT than in bPJT (p = 0.043) and control (p < 0.001). In the remaining outcomes of CMJ and SJ, both uPJT and bPJT showed significant improvement compared to the control group (p > 0.05), although there was no significant difference between them. In conclusion, our study suggests that utilizing uPJT is equally effective as bPJT in enhancing performance in bilateral jump tests. However, it significantly outperforms bPJT in improving time to stabilization and peak landing forces during single-leg land and hold test. uPJT could be advantageous not for maximizing performance but also for potentially decreasing injury risk by enhancing control and balance during single-leg actions, which are common in basketball.
... Sports diagnostics is a comprehensive scientific concept that encompasses the aspect of training monitoring and/or sports medicine. In many cases, that is quite challenging in the real world of sports especially in the professional sphere (Mercer et al., 2022). This level of control allows for managing fatigue and protects athletes from the excessive risk of injury during an intensive sports training (West S.W. et al., 2021). ...
The increasing development of mankind can be seen in the progress in the design of sports facilities which must satisfy certain high standards of construction and equipment and which need to offer a maximum number of services in their environment in order to meet the needs of customers. One of the major positive influences on users includes opening diagnostic centers within sports objects which must be furnished properly and functionally. When furnishing and designing the interior, it is necessary to pay attention to the choice of colours, floor materials, lighting, and most importantly – the equipment that will be used in the premises of the center. They can be separated into zones: medical rooms, laboratory, and diagnostics and training area. Each of these zones has different requirements for equipment with special attention to the privacy of the patients being tested, their safety and keeping the space clean.
... We present similar findings in this study where backcourt players report 4148 6 1385 AU per week while frontcourt players report 3614 6 1223 AU, with RPE remaining similar at 6.0 6 0.9 and 6.0 6 1.0, respectively. The results of the mixed model suggest that the individual athlete has substantially greater impact on internal load than playing position, aligning with the principle of specificity and individuality in basketball (29,38). This high athlete-to-athlete variation in training loads highlights the need for a detailed monitoring process in a basketball academy setting, whereby daily training modifications may be required at the individual level based on an athlete's responses to a training dose. ...
Lever, JR, Duffield, R, Murray, A, Bartlett, JD, and Fullagar, HHK. Longitudinal internal training load and exposure in a high-performance basketball academy. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000–000, 2024—This study describes the longitudinal training exposure (session counts) and internal training load (Rating of Perceived Exertion [RPE] and Session Rating of Perceived Exertion [sRPE]) of youth basketball players at a high-performance academy, based on the training year, training term, and playing position. Historical internal training load and training exposure data were collated from 45 male high-performance youth basketball athletes between 2015 and 2019. Data included session duration, RPE, sRPE, training type, and date. Linear mixed models and pairwise comparisons were performed on the weekly means and categorized by training year (year 1, year 2, year 3), term (term 1, term 2, term 3, term 4), and playing position (Backcourt, Frontcourt). Linear mixed models indicate that the individual athlete had the greatest influence on variance in training load and exposure. Significant differences were observed for increased session count, duration, and sRPE ( p < 0.001) in year 2 compared with year 1. These measures also increased within each year whereby term 3 and term 4 ( p < 0.001) were significantly greater than term 1 and term 2. No significant differences were observed between playing position ( p > 0.05). Training exposure and internal training load increase in year 2 from year 1 for high-performance youth basketball academy athletes. Differences between training load and exposure for terms (i.e., training blocks) suggest the phase of season influences training prescription, while playing position has limited effect.
... Sports diagnostics is a comprehensive scientific concept and comprises an aspect of training monitoring and/or sports medicine. In many cases, it is challenging to implement in the real world of sports, especially in the professional sphere [1,2]. It consists, among other aspects, of the medical control of both sick and healthy training competitors [3]; above all, this level of control allows fatigue to be managed and protects a competitor from the excessive risk of injury during intensive sports training [4]. ...
Sports diagnostics is a comprehensive scientific concept and comprises an aspect of training monitoring and/or sports medicine [...]
BACKGROUND: Sport-specific training is an integral component of returning to sport following injury. Frameworks designed to guide sport-specific rehabilitation need to integrate and adapt to the specific context of elite sport. The control-chaos continuum (CCC) is a flexible framework originally designed for on-pitch rehabilitation in elite football (soccer). The concepts underpinning the CCC transfer to other elite sport rehabilitation environments.
CLINICAL QUESTION: How can practitioners and clinicians transfer the CCC to elite basketball, to support planning and return to sport? On-court rehabilitation is a critical sport-specific rehabilitation component of return to sport, yet there are no frameworks to guide practitioners when planning and delivering on-court rehabilitation.
KEY RESULTS: Based on our experience working in the National Basketball Association, we report how the CCC framework can apply to elite basketball. We focus on the design and delivery of progressive training in the presence of injury in this basketball-specific edition of the CCC. Given the challenges when quantifying “load” in basketball, we encourage practitioners and clinicians to consider the qualitative aspects of performance such as skill, sport-specific movement, contact, and decision making.
CLINICAL APPLICATION: The 5-phase framework describes training progression from high control, a return to on-court running, to high chaos, a return to “live” unrestricted basketball. The model can be adapted to both short- and long-term injuries based on injury and progression criteria. Strength and power “diagnostics” can be strategically implemented to enhance decision making throughout the return to sport continuum. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 2023;53(9):498-509. Epub: 9 August 2023. doi:10.2519/jospt.2023.11981
