Figure 9 - uploaded by Stephan Kempe
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Comparison of the depth/length profile of ThatCave (erosional) and Pa'auhau Civil Defense (lava tube).
Source publication
In 2000 and 2001, two large (each ca. 1000 m long) cave systems have been surveyed on the eastern, heavily eroded, flank of Mauna Kea: The Pa‘auhau Civil Defense Cave and the Kuka‘iau Cave (at first called ThatCave/ThisCave System). Both caves occur in the Hamakua Volcanics, 200-250 to 65-70 ka old. They are the first substantial caves documented f...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... the depth-length relation of the cave is best described by a polynomial fit (given in Fig. 9), consistent with a water-related origin. Groundwater tends to sink quickly toward the water table before flowing horizontally. In contrast, lava tubes follow the slope of the mountain and tend (on the hundred meter scale) to have a linear depth-length relation. This is best shown by the comparison between the profiles of the upper ...
Context 2
... to sink quickly toward the water table before flowing horizontally. In contrast, lava tubes follow the slope of the mountain and tend (on the hundred meter scale) to have a linear depth-length relation. This is best shown by the comparison between the profiles of the upper part of Kuka'iau Cave (i.e. ThatCave) and Pa'auhau Civil Defense Cave (Fig. 9). Also, the general decrease of the passage size with length is a feature more consistent with water flow than of lava ...
Citations
... Fluvial caves: their formation is related to the effects of fluvial erosion. Three subtypes are included: riverbank erosion caves by laterally directed fluvial erosion; waterfall erosion caves by backward-directed erosion of bedrock below and behind waterfalls; and fluvial channel erosion caves that are formed by erosion cutting into the channel floor (Bögli, 1980;Kempe & Werner, 2003;Bella & Gaál, 2013 (Oberender & Plan, 2015). f. ...
Cave is re-defined in order to be linked to the cave formation processes, to cover the known cave types, to differentiate from porosity and contiguous spaces, to be applied also in a continuum of size and to avoid explorational bias. Despite the scientific basis, the proposed definition remains simple enough to be used by cavers and non-specialists. Following this definition, a classification scheme that is also process-based combines the known cave types. Clustering is based on five levels of classification, from which the first two levels define the major cave categories. The rest of the branching is the result of variation in settings and formation agents. A discussion on various classifications and definitions reveals the non-static character of such schemes that tend to change in relation to the progress of research cave census and improved communication of scientists on previously and new discovered caves.
... It is worth noting, however, that distinguishing the origins of some caves is not easy. For example, one cave (Kuka ̒ au Cave) in the Hamakua volcanites on Mouna Kea, was formed as a result of erosion (Kempe and Werner, 2003), while the other (P ̒ a ̒ auhau), was established originally as a lava tube, but was later modified as a result of erosion by a stream . ...
... Numerous halloysite occurrences in or at the contact of karstified lithologies have been reported in literature, several of which in Belgium (Davies & Moore, 1957;Dupuis & Ertus, 1995;Goemaere & Hanson, 1997;Perruchot et al., 1997;Simon-Coinçon et al., 1997;De Putter et al., 2002;Melka et al., 2000;Polyak & Güven, 2000;Perruchot et al., 2001;Kempe & Werner, 2003;Kempe et Figure 7. Diffraction patterns of white clay indicating the evolution of fully hydrated 10 Å halloysite to dehydrated 7 Å halloysite after air-drying at room conditions with XRD measurements during regular intervals. Maksimović, 2003). ...
In Belgium, numerous karstified sand-carbonate contacts are known for their association with halloysite precipitation. In the Hinnisdael caves of Vechmaal, eastern of Belgium, a similar geological setting is observed in dolines of karstified calcarenite of the Cretaceous Maastricht Formation filled with sand of the Oligocene St. Huibrechts-Hern Formation. At the sand-calcarenite interface, a discontinuous succession occurs of white clay and oxidized rust almost perfectly segregated. These lithologies are authigenic precipitations of high purity consisting of only halloysite-allophane and goethite-ferrihydrite respectively. The Al, Si and Fe necessary for this precipitation were derived from the short-range distance dissolution of glauconite and other silicate minerals present in the overlying sand unit. The mobilization of these ions was realized by the progressive oxidation of pyrite to jarosite leading to a significant acidification of the percolating water. It is furthermore observed that seemingly small variations in local conditions in the Curfs quarry of Valkenburg, the Netherlands, result in alunite, gibbsite, halloysite, allophane precipitation instead of jarosite, halloysite-allophane and goethite-ferrihydrite.
... It is the only larger secondary cave on Hawai'i that tunneled through a variety of volcanics by a sinking creek. In a sense, a real karstic cave, defying all what we know about cave formation (Kempe & Werner, 2003). It is a kilometer long and over a 100 m deep and when in flood, sumps quickly. ...
... Fluvial channel erosion caves -occur at the contact of rocks of different permeability and hardness or along fractures, the water course become engrosses in the floor (Kempe and Werner 2003). ...
Many caves were originated by various mechanical processes in both non-soluble and soluble rocks. The genetic classification of the specific group of caves presents one of important and actual speleogenetic problematics. The paper gives a basic categorisation of non-solution caves according to their origin. The group of non-solution caves originated by endogenous processes consists of magmatic, volcanic and tectogene caves. Fluvial erosion caves, caves formed by moving glacier and deposition of moraine sediments, suffusion caves, constructional travertine caves, mudlow caves, wave cut caves, caves originated by deformation of rocks caused by their volumetric changes, caves originated by gravity disintegration of rocks, mechanically weathered caves, eolian caves, caves of biogenic origin, pyrogenic caves, and caves formed as a result of the technogenic activatisation of natural processes are distinguished within the group of non-solution caves originated by exogenous processes.
... Nevertheless, a few cases of secondary cave formation are known. In Hawai'i, Kuka'iau Cave is approximately 1 km long and 100 m deep, formed by stream erosion (Kempe and Werner, 2003), and waves cut caves along lava coasts in many areas. Furthermore, faulting can create postdepositional fissure caves in lava. ...
Caves are defined as natural underground cavities (potentially) accessible by humans. They are decorated by various forms of speleothems that have always fascinated the human explorer. Caves are divided into primary and secondary caves, that is, formed with, or long after the deposition of the rocks containing them. The largest group of primary caves is that formed by flowing lava, whereas the largest group of secondary caves is that formed in limestone. Both display specific forms of speleothems. Although primary caves can contain primary speleothems composed of the rock that formed the cave as well as secondary speleothems formed by later deposition of minerals, secondary caves in contrast contain only secondary mineral speleothems. Rock- and mineral-composed speleothems commonly have similar morphology, determined by gravity, that is, stalactites and stalagmites. However, both primary and secondary speleothems also display forms that are specific to them. Rock speleothems are composed of basalt, whereas secondary speleothems can be composed of over 250 different minerals.In this chapter, we explore differences and similarities of primary rock- and secondary mineral-speleothems and discuss processes of their formation.
... Most papers published appear in caving journals and remain descriptive. With a few exceptions (1 km long and 100 m deep fluvial-erosional Kuka"iau Cave in Hawai"i; Kempe and Werner, 2003; wave cut caves along shores and caves created by faulting; see Kempe this abstract volume and Kempe, 2012) lava caves are primary, i.e. they form during the emplacement of the lava itself. Lava tunnels (also termed "lava tubes" and "pyroducts" in the literature; see discussion in Kempe, 2002Kempe, , 2008Kempe, , 2009Lockwood & Hazlett, 2010) are the most important features in spreading low viscosity basaltic lavas on land and an integral phenomena of shield volcanoes. ...
The Harrat Al Shaam, the lava deserts of Jordan, is a vast lava field, in which we have explored and surveyed as yet 23 lava caves with a total added length of 316 m. With 231 m in length, Hashemite University Cave is the third longest. It can be classified as a " pyroduct " , i.e. serving as an underground conduit for molten lava away from the volcanic vent. Hashemite University cave is one of two known pyroducts in the 164 km 2 large flowfield of the twin volcanoes Qais and Makais, one of the youngest in the Harrat. This flowfield also contains the only known pressure ridge caves in Jordan: Azzam, Dahdal, Al-Ra'ye, Al-Haya, Obada, Hammam, Henschel, Haleem and Al-Ameed Caves. The discovery of Hashemite University cave illustrates the importance of pyroducts for the transport of lava across terrain of low slope. In case of the Qais and Makais Flowfield the amounted to 28 km of distance with a slope of only 0.65°.
... They are most common in pahoehoe flows, but can also occur in dominantly aa flows (Keszthelyi, 1995). Basaltic caves may also form through erosion of zones of weakness (e.g., fractures, faults, small tubes) by waves (Lé veillé et al., 2000) or groundwater (Kempe and Werner, 2003). ...
Cave minerals on Earth provide a record of aqueous processes and microbial activity. Caves, especially lava tubes, likely occur on Mars as well, and the minerals they contain may provide useful information on past aqueous activity and perhaps even martian
... Chadwick et al. (1999) report that in soils older than 100 000 years, dust becomes the dominant source of major nutrients (except phosphorous) for ecosystems. On the island of Hawaii, inspection of lava from the Hamauka Series (produced by the Mauna Kea) in the erosive Kukaiau Cave showed that vesicles of the lava and fractures in the lava have been sealed by allophane, preventing surface water to reach large volumes of bedrock and thus reducing available rock surfaces for weathering (Kempe and Werner, 2003). Weathering restraints by soils have also been reported for the Amazon region (Stallard and Edmond, 1983). ...
... All observations lead to the conclusion that the Kuka'iau Cave is erosional in origin (Kempe & Werner 2003). These observations include: missing lava tube features, a graded hydraulic profile, a base layer along which the major section of the cave seems to have developed, and allophane and halloysite that sealed the primary porosity causing a locally perched water table. ...
... sump between the caves was explored and both caves, now called Kuka'iau Cave, were connected. Kuka'iau Cave proved to be entirely of erosional origin, a novelty for lava caves (Kempe & Werner 2003). The story of the discovery of these caves and initial reports are given in Werner et al. (2000, 2003); Kempe (2000), and Kempe et al. (2001). ...
... In the sediment underlying the cave, it is highest in concentration, but it also occurs in the fluvial sediment that is composed of material washed into the cave from weathered rocks higher on the mountain. In addition, there is a large x-ray amorphous fraction, most probably allophane, as described in the paper by Kempe and Werner (2003). ...
In 2000 and 2001, 2 large (1000 m long) cave systems were surveyed on the eastern, heavily eroded flank of Mauna Kea: The Pa‘auhau Civil Defense Cave and the Kuka‘iau Cave. Both caves occur in the Hamakua Volcanics, 200-250 to 65-70 ka old. They are the first substantial caves documented for lavas of this volcano and the first caves on the island of Hawaii showing extensive morphological signs of water erosion.
All observations lead to the conclusion that the Kuka‘iau Cave is erosional in origin (Kempe & Werner 2003). These observations include: missing lava tube features, a graded hydraulic profile, a base layer along which the major section of the cave seems to have developed, and allophane and halloysite that sealed the primary porosity causing a locally perched water table.
In contrast to this feature, the Pa‘auhau Civil Defense Cave originated as a lava tube. This is attested to by the presence of the typical morphologic elements of a lava tube, such as secondary ceilings, linings, base sheets, lava stalactites, and lava falls. Nevertheless, the cave was heavily modified by a stream that entered upslope and traversed much, but not all, of the cave. It left waterfall walls, large plunge pools, stream potholes, scallops, flutes, gravel, rounded blocks, and mud.
The finding of water-erosional caves in the lavas of Hawaii offers a new view on deep-seated water courses in volcanic edifices.