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Comparison of population and base stations between rural and urban communities in Zimbabwe (Source: POTRAZ, 2015)
Source publication
Most rural communities in developing countries such as Zimbabwe are underserved and/or unserved with regard to telecommunication connectivity. Governments in developing countries are also under‐resourced to provide adequate digital infrastructure. Thus, community networks are increasingly seen as viable alternatives to bridge the infrastructure gap...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... reports, as indicated in Figure 3, show that despite the rural population being 67%, this population is serviced by only 29% of the country's base stations. Inversely, the 33% located in urban areas has access to 71% of the country's base stations, and this contributes to the poor connectivity (network coverage) within rural communities. ...
Context 2
... reports, as indicated in Figure 3, show that despite the rural population being 67%, this population is serviced by only 29% of the country's base stations. Inversely, the 33% located in urban areas has access to 71% of the country's base stations, and this contributes to the poor connectivity (network coverage) within rural communities. radios" as they are best known, can access foreign radio stations, eg, Voice of America-Studio 7-and avert broadcasting restrictions in ...
Citations
... The agribusiness entrepreneurs had the highest access to radio adverts/programs on financial matters (64%) as displayed in Figure 2. Television programs, the internet, and indigenous news media accounted for low coverage of financial information dissemination in the following order: 5%, 15%, and 16%. Internet infrastructural deficiency may account for poor internet access among agribusiness entrepreneurs [79][80][81]. This is contrary to what is obtainable in rural areas in developed countries where rural dwellers view online TV and radio programs more than urban residents due to the unavailability of entertainment centers such as football stadiums, museums, cinemas, and theatres [43]. ...
... Contrary to expectations, the internet accounted for only 15% and this is unhealthy for agribusiness sustainability considering the fact that the world has gone digital. The lack of internet infrastructure in Nigerian rural areas may account for the low availability of financial information via the internet [79][80][81]. ...
... The agribusiness entrepreneurs had the highest access to radio adverts/programs on financial matters (64%) as displayed in Figure 2. Television programs, the internet, and indigenous news media accounted for low coverage of financial information dissemination in the following order: 5%, 15%, and 16%. Internet infrastructural deficiency may account for poor internet access among agribusiness entrepreneurs [79][80][81]. This is contrary to what is obtainable in rural areas in developed countries where rural dwellers view online TV and radio programs more than urban residents due to the unavailability of entertainment centers such as football stadiums, museums, cinemas, and theatres [43]. ...
... Contrary to expectations, the internet accounted for only 15% and this is unhealthy for agribusiness sustainability considering the fact that the world has gone digital. The lack of internet infrastructure in Nigerian rural areas may account for the low availability of financial information via the internet [79][80][81]. ...
... For instance, rural and urban regions have different BS deployments, in terms of BS density, propagation loss, and LOS connectivity. This fact is particularly relevant in developing countries, where the population is more concentrated in rural areas despite poorer BS deployment [45]. To have a better understanding of the overall network quality in such conditions, and to be able to plan a measurement campaign more efficiently, we can split the area of interest, e.g. ...
Cellular operators tightly monitor their networks to keep up with the market demand and frequently benchmark their performance against competitors. Typical benchmarking tests compare Key Performance Indicators (KPIs), Quality of Service (QoS), and Quality of Experience (QoE) parameters on the city- and regional levels using user-collected crowdsourced data or drive test measurements. However, time-variant parameters and different user mobility patterns can bias the performance comparison. Designing a measurement sampling strategy that deals with such issues is critical for achieving a valid benchmark. Whether we would like to determine how many tiles of a map have to be measured in drive tests or how many samples we need from crowdsourced data to reach an estimate with the required accuracy, sampling theory can provide us with an answer. Since propagation conditions depend on user mobility and measurement environment, splitting the data set into groups or strata allows us to attain an unbiased estimate with fewer samples, thus allowing for a fair comparison to other Mobile Network Operators (MNOs) with minimum effort measurements. In this work, we characterize the performance of different sampling methods on the simulated KPI data set while investigating specific use cases to reveal scenarios where the stratification method pays off. We analyze the sampling methods on two real Minimization of Drive Test (MDT) crowdsourced data sets from a major Austrian operator. By stratifying the data into meaningful strata, we obtain the required number of areas and measurements in each stratum while remaining under the pre-set estimation error level. To our knowledge, this is the first study on sampling methodologies applied to real-world crowdsourced cellular measurements.
... There is no universal approach to address the challenges and solutions must be tailored to different communities. The study country, Zimbabwe, is a country with complex social, economic, and political landscape and with limited work on connecting the unconnected communities [69]. However, in the past few years, there has been progress towards addressing the challenges including efforts such as the MOSMAC intervention [ibid]. ...
Livestock contribute to household food security, financial security, and societal status. However, most rural livestock systems are fragile characterized by poor infrastructure, information asymmetry, and dysfunctional markets. Literature suggests that digital platforms show promise to contribute towards addressing these challenges and yet, contrary evidence cautions against growing concerns like platform providers' power accumulation which can further marginalize users. I use evidence from the MOSMAC intervention in Beitbridge (Zimbabwe) to explore the potential of digital platforms to revitalise a livestock system. Findings suggest that digital platforms strengthen the livestock system through connecting system actors, improving coordination, and enabling transactions. However, these platforms are fraught with hidden complexities often invisible to users and can worsen prevailing conditions. I demonstrate data aggregation, power consolidation through product integration and power shifts which are often unknow to the users. These insights can inform design considerations and empower users to make informed decisions towards digital platforms
... According to evaluations of prepaid and post-paid mobile and ADSL (fixed) broadband RIA price categories, fixed-line packages are (surprisingly) more expensive than comparable mobile packages. Mobile data's appeal in South Africa is also boosted by its lower setup costs and more convenient prepaid charging options, which are especially appealing for low data use and uneven consumption (Gwaka et al, 2018). In South Africa, the cost is still a barrier to widespread broadband acceptance and use. ...
Studies have shown that the majority of the global population are migrating from rural to urban areas. People are leaving rural areas due to poor services such as poor broadband service. Fibre optic technology has been introduced as a solution to poor broadband quality. However, as a result of the peculiar characteristics of South Africa's rural areas, the majority of the telecommunication operators are hesitant to invest in ICT in rural areas because it tends to be much less profitable. Hence, the study of how cost-effective it would be to deploy a fibre optic network in rural areas as compared to the current wireless (LTE) network remains an open issue. This study investigates the cost-effectiveness of deploying a fibre optic network in the rural area of Mdantsane township, by analysing the installation and operation costs of fibre optic networks in comparison to the cost of wireless (LTE) networks. The finding of the study amongst others showed that while fibre optic networks seem to be great, however, they come at a cost. The cost of drilling and trenching associated with the deployment of fibre optic networks was reported as the key reason why the network deployment is costly. Hence, reducing the cost of drilling and trenching would reduce the cost significantly. The study suggests that, to lower fibre optic deployment costs, network operators should collaborate and share costs through a customised pricing model that benefits both the operators and rural internet users. RESUMO Estudos têm mostrado que a maioria da população global está migrando de áreas rurais para áreas urbanas. As pessoas estão deixando as áreas rurais devido a serviços precários, como serviço de banda larga precário. A tecnologia de fibra óptica foi introduzida como uma solução para a baixa qualidade de banda larga. No entanto, devido às características peculiares das zonas rurais da África do Sul, a maioria dos operadores de telecomunicações hesita em investir em TIC nas zonas rurais porque tende a ser muito menos rentável. Portanto, o estudo de quão econômico seria implantar uma rede de fibra óptica em áreas rurais em comparação com a rede sem fio atual (LTE) permanece uma questão em aberto. Este estudo investiga o custo-benefício da implantação de uma rede de fibra óptica na área rural do município de Mdantsane, analisando os custos de instalação e operação de redes de fibra óptica em comparação com o custo de redes sem fio (LTE). A descoberta do estudo, entre outros, mostrou que, embora as redes de fibra óptica pareçam ótimas, elas têm um custo. O custo de perfuração e abertura de valas associado à implantação de redes de fibra óptica foi relatado como a principal razão pela qual a implantação da rede é cara. Portanto, reduzir o custo de perfuração e abertura de valas reduziria o custo significativamente. O estudo sugere que, para diminuir os custos de implantação da fibra óptica, as operadoras de rede devem colaborar e compartilhar custos por meio de um modelo de precificação customizado que beneficie tanto as operadoras quanto os usuários rurais de internet. Palavras-chave: Fibra óptica, Desdobramento, Desenvolvimento, Banda Larga, Rede.
... According to evaluations of prepaid and post-paid mobile and ADSL (fixed) broadband RIA price categories, fixed-line packages are (surprisingly) more expensive than comparable mobile packages. Mobile data's appeal in South Africa is also boosted by its lower setup costs and more convenient prepaid charging options, which are especially appealing for low data use and uneven consumption (Gwaka et al, 2018). In South Africa, the cost is still a barrier to widespread broadband acceptance and use. ...
Studies have shown that the majority of the global population are migrating from rural to urban areas. People are leaving rural areas due to poor services such as poor broadband service. Fibre optic technology has been introduced as a solution to poor broadband quality. However, as a result of the peculiar characteristics of South Africa's rural areas, the majority of the telecommunication operators are hesitant to invest in ICT in rural areas because it tends to be much less profitable. Hence, the study of how cost-effective it would be to deploy a fibre optic network in rural areas as compared to the current wireless (LTE) network remains an open issue. This study investigates the cost-effectiveness of deploying a fibre optic network in the rural area of Mdantsane township, by analysing the installation and operation costs of fibre optic networks in comparison to the cost of wireless (LTE) networks. The finding of the study amongst others showed that while fibre optic networks seem to be great, however, they come at a cost. The cost of drilling and trenching associated with the deployment of fibre optic networks was reported as the key reason why the network deployment is costly. Hence, reducing the cost of drilling and trenching would reduce the cost significantly. The study suggests that, to lower fibre optic deployment costs, network operators should collaborate and share costs through a customised pricing model that benefits both the operators and rural internet users.
... Telecommunications infrastructure is usually built by large telecommunication companies for businesses and profit-making. Patronage and return on investment determine to a large extent the locations telecommunication companies invest in and site telecommunication infrastructures (Fuchs, 2017;Gwaka et al., 2018). Conditions in low-income communities usually do not meet the profitoriented criteria telecommunication companies use when siting their infrastructure (Fuchs, 2017;Micholia et al., 2018;Rich & Pather, 2020). ...
... The digital divide necessitates the implementation of CNs in low-income communities. It is assumed that CNs can help bridge the gap in the distribution of telecommunication infrastructure (Gwaka et al., 2018). ...
... This is why SE-based CNs are implemented in rural communities where telecommunication infrastructure is believed to be of critical need but less developed and compelling. In view of this revelation, running with the SE logic has persistent sustainability challenges to CNs in low-income communities (Gonzalez, 2016). Consequently, scholars believe that organisations that run with the SE logic can ensure sustainability by switching to the for-profit logic (Sabella & Eid, 2016). ...
There are conflicting views about how social enterprise logic impacts community networks’ sustainability (CNs). Some authors believe that running with the social enterprise logic spells doom on CNs. Conversely, some believe that it does not necessarily spell doom on CNs. However, CNs, particularly those implemented in sub-Saharan Africa, cannot be implemented with an alternative logic, such as the for-profit business logic. Consequently, there is a need to develop a framework for making CNs sustainable, although they run with the social enterprise logic. This research develops a framework that will enable those involved in CN implementation in sub-Saharan Africa to understand how to instil sustainability factors into every stage of CN implementation. The study uses the Zaria Community Network (ZCN), Zaria, Nigeria, as a case study and adopts the inductive approach. The study data were derived from the chat messages from a WhatsApp group used as a platform for communication by those implementing the ZCN and from secondary sources. The study findings revealed that sustainable participation was a primary factor that comes to bear in the sustainability of the ZCN. It also revealed how sustainable participation influences sustainable infrastructure, sustainable stakeholders’ support, and sustainable funding. We conclude that the framework helps implement sustainable CNs in sub-Saharan Africa and other regions with similar socio-technical similarities.
... Even during the dreaded COVID-19 pandemic, the Zenzeleni network and Tunapanda network contributed towards community responses to the pandemic (APC, 2021a(APC, , 2021b. Governments, including those with previously stringent regulations such as the Government of Zimbabwe, are warming to the idea of community networks supporting the concept through formal recognition and developing friendly regulatory conditions (Gwaka et al., 2018). ...
... In addition, most available studies focus on a single project (e.g. Gwaka et al., 2018) and were conducted by practitioners involved in the community networks, potentially compromising their objectivity. ...
... Research on community networks is steadily growing, with different studies focusing on the different aspects of community networks, including technical and economic sustainability (Baig et al., 2016;Fuchs, 2017), gender implications (Bidwell, 2019), and replicability (Gwaka et al., 2018). At a broader level, some studies consider community networks as infrastructure and focus on how they are entangled into everyday community politics (cf. ...
The mounting evidence that current efforts to meet international goals for increasing Internet connectivity are likely to fall short has heightened interest in alternative connectivity models such as community networks. Already, there are many such initiatives globally taking differentiated approaches towards their setup and operation. This results in fragmented knowledge on the initiatives and systematic analysis of these models is limited. This study applies the People, Technology, Organization and Environment (TOE) framework to examine 21 community networks across countries in different continents to produce insights into their structure and components. The aim is to identify ways in which initiatives become sustainable. Data for the study were collected in two steps. First, qualitative data were gathered using in-depth interviews to produce a database of case studies. Second, the qualitative data were quantized, which enables the researchers to produce descriptive data. Overall, the study findings demonstrate the existence of several technology options, but the main technology used for community level connectivity is Wi-Fi. Initiatives also adopt different organizational approaches, but strategic partnerships are critical for the success of the initiatives. While strategic partners provide support for the initial set up lack of business models affect the sustainability of initiatives. Also, while environment-related issues (regulation, infrastructure) play a significant role, they are malleable as shown by changes in regulatory regimes. This study findings are useful to practitioners implementing community networks, researchers looking to gain more insights on these models and policy makers responsible for the telecommunication, and digital policies.
... COVID-19 containment measures, such as lockdowns, have resulted in an exponential increase in mental health issues; hence, there is an impetus to increase service coverage [38,39]. Another possible reason for the increased uptake could be the campaign of the Zimbabwean Ministry of Health and Child Care and the WHO to increase the awareness and coverage of mental health services in Zimbabwe [40]. ...
... Internet speeds in Zimbabwe depend much on geographical location. For example, connection speeds are faster and more stable in low-density areas than in high-density areas, with rural areas having poorer connectivity than urban areas [40]. Such disparity affects the feasibility of an equitable roll out of mHealth interventions in low-resource settings, necessitating the exploration of reasonable alternatives. ...
Background:
Common mental health disorders (CMDs) are a leading cause of disability globally. The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has further exacerbated the burden of CMDs. COVID-19 containment measures, including lockdowns, have disrupted access to in-person mental healthcare. It is therefore imperative to explore digital mental health interventions' utility to bridge the treatment gap. Mobile health (mHealth) technologies are effective tools for increasing access to treatment at a lower cost. This study explores the utility of Inuka, a chat-based application (app) hinged on the Friendship Bench problem-solving therapy intervention. The Inuka app offers double anonymity, and clients can book and/or cancel a session at their convenience. Inuka services can be accessed either through a mobile app or the web.
Objective:
To explore the feasibility of conducting a future clinical trial. Additionally, we evaluated the feasibility, acceptability, appropriateness, scalability, and preliminary effectiveness of Inuka.
Methods:
Data were collected using concurrent mixed methods. We used a pragmatic quasi-experimental design to compare the feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary clinical effectiveness of Inuka (experimental group) compared to WhatsApp chat-based counselling (control intervention). Participants received six problem-solving therapy sessions delivered by lay counsellors. A reduction in CMDs was the primary clinical outcome. The secondary outcomes were health-related quality of life (HRQoL), disability and functioning, and social support. Quantitative outcomes were analyzed using descriptive and bivariate statistics. Last, we used administrative data and semi-structured interviews to gather data on acceptability and feasibility; this was analyzed using thematic analysis.
Results:
Altogether, 258 participants were screened over six months, with 202 assessed for eligibility. 176 participants were assigned to the study giving a recruitment ratio of 29 participants/month. The participants' mean age was 24.4 (SD 5.3) years, and most participants were female (65.8%), had tertiary education (55.3%), with a mean daily smartphone usage of 8 hours (SD 3.5). Eighty-three (83) users signed up and completed at least one session. The average completion rate was three out of four sessions. Inuka was deemed feasible and acceptable in the local context, with connectivity challenges, app instability, expensive mobile data and power outages cited as potential barriers to scale-up. Generally, there was a decline in CMDs (F (2,73) =2.63; P=0.079), depression (F (2,73) =7.67; p< .001), anxiety (F (2,73) =2.95; P=0.059) and a corresponding increase in HRQoL (F (2, 73) =7.287; P<. 001) in both groups.
Conclusions:
Study outcomes show it is feasible to run a future large-scale RCT and lend support to the feasibility and acceptability of Inuka, including evidence of preliminary effectiveness. The app's double anonymity and structured support were the most salient features. There is a great need for iterative app updates before scaling up. Last, a large-scale hybrid RCT with a longer follow-up to evaluate the clinical, implementation and cost-effectiveness is needed.
Clinicaltrial:
Not applicable.
... In comparison, 84% of the rural people, where the majority of learners reside, have no access to electricity (UNICEF, 2020). Most rural communities in Zimbabwe are underserved or unserved at all concerning radio signals (Barakabitze et al., 2019;Gwaka et al., 2018;Sunil, 2021). Because of the challenges related to limited or no internet connectivity and radio signal in rural areas, it is therefore prudent to investigate the exclusion of rural learners in education during the COVID-19 induced lockdown. ...
A variety of instructional strategies were devised to ensure continuity in education during the COVID-19 lockdown. This paper interrogates the exclusion of learners in rural settings of Zimbabwe as a result of the methods of teaching that were adopted by the government during the COVID-19 lockdown. The paper seeks to answer the question; how are the strategies meant to ensure continuity in education during the lockdown excluding learners in rural settings? The strategies that were adopted by the government have been identified to be contributing to the exclusion of learners in rural settings. Data was collected through semi-structured interviews from 20 teachers who teach in rural areas at two of Zimbabwe’s ten provinces. The interviews were done as a follow-up to the approaches of remote teaching adopted during the lockdown. The study argues that the adoption of uniform approaches to teaching and learning throughout the country during COVID-19 lockdown would not suffice as the functionality of each approach depends on the infrastructure and the economic conditions characteristic of each particular geographical location. The strategies adopted during the pandemic in a low-income country like Zimbabwe should not be permanent but should simply be an emergency response. Learners in rural settings are bound to be excluded in education during the pandemic if policymakers enact ‘one size fits all’ approaches meant for abrupt implementation. Strategies that suit the idea of emergency remote teaching during the pandemic are the most favourable.
