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Commemorative plate from the Japan British Exhibition of 1910, showing two Island Empires. Source: Private collection.
Source publication
This article examines ideas of gardening, landscape and transculturation in Edwardian Britain through the fashion for Japanese gardens. Emphasis is placed on the writing and practice of two influential figures: Josiah Conder (1855–1920) and Reginald Farrer (1880–1920). Conder was one of the leading proponents of Japanese gardens and his book Landsc...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... Japanese garden at Cowden Castle, Clackmannanshire, on the slopes of the Ochils, was the creation of Ella Christie (1867-1944) from a wealthy mine-owning family (Fig. 10). Her father John Christie emphasised the educational virtues of travel taking Ella and her sister Alice to visit industrial works as well as places of historic interest in Europe, and insisting they learn foreign languages for travels abroad. Ella Christie did not marry and took the opportunity to travel throughout Asia. Dressed in her ...
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... opportunity to travel throughout Asia. Dressed in her usual Scottish homespun (meeting her on Dollar Station, a friend thought she was off to Edinburgh for the day), accompanied by her maid Humphries, and armed with some travel advice from a friend in the War Office and a few handy phonetic phrases such as Nicki e Dome Banzai 'Long live Japanese Fig. 10. Japanese garden at Cowden Castle, Dollar, Clackmannanshire. and British alliance', Ella Christie set out for a year's sojourn in Japan in 1907, and set down her impressions in her journal and letters home to her sister. 45 Christie stayed in the old imperial capital of Kyoto in April and the new one of Tokyo the following month, ...
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... or unreliable interpreters'. Conder advised her to apply to the Yokahama Nursery Company; there she would find 'English speaking experts acquainted will all branches of gardening who will if asked, I think, supply you with suitable Japanese designs for gardens as well as advising you upon selections of trees, shrubs, stones, lanterns, etc.' (Fig. 11). 47 The pond at Cowden Christie wanted to transform into a Japanese garden had been made out of a marshy field. It was over half a mile from the house, well beyond other gardens, but the very isolation and backdrop of woodland and misty hills gave it a romantic aura, which she wished to enhance. She employed Taki Honda, from the Royal ...
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... For six weeks she toiled and planned, while to the untrained eye apparently shapeless mounds arose, and stones were sought for and found and placed in the orthodox grouping. 48 Part of the layout was planned according to the so called 'ancient rule' of the Imperial Palace Gardens, other parts copied from Conder's Landscape Gardening in Japan (Fig. 12). As at Newstead Abbey, a Master's Isle and Guest's Isle were created according to the conventions of water gardening. The approach was marked by an early 19th century granite lantern imported from a Kyoto antique dealer, who provided detailed advice about maintaining moss, if local insect hunting wrens ensured it did not survive. A red ...
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... so in the 1930s as the fashion for Japanese gardens in Britain waned, and financial conditions in Japan meant that 'gentlemen do not spend money on their gardens'. 50 He used Conder's book in his advice for Cowden, but, as with his recommendation of the zig-zag bridge (yatsu-hashi) modified it with supplementary historical and literary evidence (Fig. 13). He assured her that in his opinion, and that of knowledgeable visitors, it was one of the best in the western world. On Suzuki's recommendation, Christie employed a Japanese gardener Shinzaburo Matsuo, who had worked on other gardens in Europe. Matsuo never learned English but communicated largely by sign language; one visitor to ...
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... Farrer travelled to Japan in 1903, where he was inspired to reform the tradition of English rock gardening (Fig. 14). He became interested in mountain plants as a boy roaming the limestone hills of his family's estate at Ingleborough, Yorkshire, to collect and catalogue specimens, recording some for the first time. At St John's College, Oxford, he found in the Bursar, Henry Jardine Bidder, a fellow enthusiast for alpine flora and he helped Bidder ...
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... home. And there in the summer heats of that unutterable place, they all sickened and died. 57 Farrer reported this in his second and most popular book, My Rock Garden, first published in 1907, when he was able to add that he had now received at Ingleborough 'another lot of excellent plants', although he was 'beginning to look upon them anxiously' (Fig. 15). Farrer found a number of glorious plants 'always more or less at war with me and my soil' and resented the success of others like Mr Hindmarsh of Newcastle who managed to make the 'melancholy, shy rooted' Shortia uniflora grow 'like a groundsel' and showed off their success in the photographs in horticultural journals. Farrer had now ...
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... down the western slope of Fujiyama'. Farrer himself collected a Japanese variety of Cypripedium from the slopes of the mountain, 'as beautiful a thing as Fuji-yama ever held forth'. He secured a 'goodly batch' and a photograph in the book shows a Ruskin-style close-up view of the plant in the rock garden, 'three months after arrival from Japan' (Fig. 16). My Rock Garden advocates a combination of Japanese regard for imitative rock scenery and English regard for flowers. The ideal rock garden would be A Japanese garden stocked with European alpines; and when I say Japanese garden, I don't mean a silly jungle of bamboos, with Tori, and a sham tea-house, and Irises and a trellis-I mean a ...
Context 9
... Ingleborough fells above Clapham, Yorkshire, were already renowned for their limestone scenery and alpine plants when James Farrer, a lawyer in London, purchased the Ingleborough estate in the 18th century (Fig. 17). 60 In the early 19th century the grounds were landscaped in a picturesque style, with a lake and woodland walk to the show caves for increasing numbers of tourists. Reginald Farrer's father James Anson Farrer , a progressive landowner, undertook a campaign of improvements including hydraulic engineering of the lake and waterfalls and ...
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... and the control they were prepared to allow him planting and gardening the estate 61 . Farrer's gardening at Ingleborough took two forms. In the lower part of the grounds, below the mansion, he created two enclosed rock gardens, with large limestone boulders brought down from the fells. The so-called Old Garden was on the site of a former quarry (Fig. 18). Boulders were positioned to create miniature glens for alpines and a pond constructed, although this was removed to create a boggy bed to raise irises. As he noted in My Rock Garden plants seldom thrived here on the thin soils, 'died, sulked, sat still'. By contrast, even delicate plants transported long distances thrived in the New ...
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... A great number of gardens that blended some constructed structures with the natural environment to create a distinctive setting are included on the UNESCO World Heritage List (WHL). Among a series of different styles of gardens, Japanese gardens are representative of the Japanese landscape style and have a certain influence and attraction worldwide (Tachibana et al., 2004). According to Japan's Cultural Property Protection Law, Japanese gardens are classified as 'historical site scenic natural memorial' under the Cultural Property 90 Classification. ...
Tourism behaviour in cultural heritage gardens presents opportunities and challenges for sustainable management. Understanding visitor perceptions and assessments of visual resources in cultural heritage gardens are of great interest to heritage site managers. Using a case study of the Kairakuen Garden in Japan, we collected images (N = 430) and geographic data of tourist photos in the heritage garden through visitor-employed photography technology to analyse what hotspots attract tourists to take photos. We also evaluated the visual attributes of photo hotspots using a questionnaire. The results reveal that the most common elements in tourist images were plant landscapes and human-made structures and that the 12 photo hotspots of the Kairakuen Garden were placed along the officially recommended tour routes, indicating that tourists identify the officially approved scenery. Furthermore, there are four main hotspot areas; they received significant different visual attributes assessments in ‘scenic beauty’, ‘complexity’, ‘mystery’, and ‘diversity’. Based on these findings, it is possible to understand tourists’ visual perceptions and preferences and to make recommendations for the management of the Kairakuen Garden and other cultural heritage gardens.
... The garden is a kind of reflection of Japanese landscape [3]. Artificial hills, rocks, lakes, stream beds and cascades are copied from the outstanding properties of various landscapes in the country [4]. Japanese gardens show an intertwined connection of the concepts of landscape, religion and culture which are peculiar to Japan and make sense to Japanese people. ...
The need for open space, which is an important problem especially since the 19th century, has become more important in today's conditions. The most important factor in increasing the livability of cities is the open and green areas. Parks are the most important of the urban open and green space elements that provide the most benefit to users. In this context, the user satisfaction of the Japanese Kyoto Park, which is the subject of the research, was evaluated in the light of the questionnaires. With this analysis, the satisfaction level of the user using the park was determined. Suggestions have been developed for the park to be handled and regulated according to the user requests and requirements changing over time. Keywords-Japanese park, landscape, landscape design, open and green areas.
... For instance, the gardenesque style displayed exotic plants (kalmias, rhododendrons, camellias, oaks, magnolias, acacias, etc.) in dedicated areas of the public gardens where they could live and prosper (Londei, 1982;Loudon, 1840). Exotic species were not valued per se, rather they were valued as discovered by science and domesticated by the technical expertise of Western countries, and contributed to celebrating the rationality of the colonial sciences by putting forward control over diverse forms of life (Tachibana et al., 2004). This makes particularly evident the relation between the colonial practices of confinement and segregation of indigenous people in the colonies, the confinement of exotic plants in public gardens and the control of working-class people in European liberal society (Osborne and Rose, 1999: 746). ...
This article analyses Bent Flyvbjerg's 'dark side of planning' theory and proposes to increase its critical strength by including, together with ideas of rationality and power, two further theoretical tools: the Foucauldian concepts of governmentality and biopolitics. The potentiality of this inclusion is exemplified by the analysis provided about the influence of 18th-century colonial governmentality on the real rationality of public garden planning in the modern liberal cities of most western European colonising countries. It aims to show that Flyvbjerg's concept of 'real rationality' can be usefully regarded as the product of a broad interpretation of biopolitical technologies, including the disciplining of non-human further than human life, which makes it possible to control the 'uncivilised' instincts of society through public garden planning. This article aims to suggest, that by digging deep into the hidden rationality of planning, even in those cases in which only the progressive face of power is apparently involved, a dark side of planning is unavoidably present in the form of a disciplinary power.
... Japanese popular print, kaika injun kohai kagami, 1873. Source from Tachibana, 2004. ...
... Conder's syllabus did not include the teaching of Japanese carpentry, ensuring that until 1889 the architecture course was an instance of the 'West' in 76 Conder's interest in Japanese garden was influential to Edwardian Britain landscape before the First World War through his book in 1893, Landscape Gardening in Japan. (Tachibana, Daniels, and Watkins, 2004) the 'East'. His course covered design, mathematics, European architecture history, professional practice, contracting, and materials used in Western architecture. ...
This research assesses how contact with Europe and America from 1853 created a new notion of the modern in Japan and colonial Taiwan, through exploring the architectural expressions of Japanese architects. Taking a detailed look at relevant theories of the modern, and the geo-political, governmental and intellectual histories of Meiji Japan, I analyse how Japan used architecture in their nation-building process, and later the role of architecture in building colonial modernity in Taiwan. The study explores how colonial buildings crystallised Japan’s fledgling modernity, cumulating in an extensive case study of the Taiwan Governor-General’s Office, focusing on how the building spatially embedded hierarchical relationships, and how through mastery of European architectural forms it became an artefact of techno-cultural superiority.
Through these analyses I find that whilst Japan’s modernity was genuine (in that it was rationally innovative and fashionably reflected up-to-date forms and technologies) the conditions that produced it were sufficiently different that Japan effectively created a split in the idea of what it meant to be modern. Whilst modernity in Europe occurred over a long period, driven by the Enlightenment and the growth of imperialism, in Japan the primary driver was the desire to be seen as civilised, which required instrumental utilisation of reason (and later colonisation) to achieve. Japan’s architectural modernity was intrinsically tied to the state’s drive towards Great Power status, dominance over East Asian neighbours and the reframing of a national Japanese cultural identity as intrinsically superior. These diverse aims led to a unique cultural gap between public and private life developing in Japan, and to Japan politically and culturally splitting off from East Asia.
This thesis looks in detail at the story of kindai (modern) architecture in Japan, through exploring a number of themes. First, how translated concepts entered Japan through Josiah Conder, the first Professor of Architecture in Japan, who instituted a new ranking of building types that placed indigenous architecture below European masonry. Second, how political centralisation led to the creation of a modern Japanese architecture style promoted by Conder’s successor TATSUNO Kingo, which became a national style through its use first in Japan and later more extensively in Japan’s colonies. Third, due to the foundational splits in the basis for architectural education in Japan, new social boundaries were created through the Governor-General’s Office which allowed colonial architects to shore their sense of superiority whilst avoiding Orientalist rackets. In spite of this the building remains equivocal: the modern split between Japanese administration and residential architecture even applied to the Governor-General, and implied Euro-American authority remains through the necessary spatial and stylistic appropriations. As the first study that traces the formation of modern architecture in Taiwan to Japan and further back to Victorian Britain, this thesis provides a trans-disciplinary contribution to the field.
... 기타 특별박람회와Tachibana et al, 2004Brown, 1998: 108-110;Brown, 1999주 1) ...
This study fundamentally is to develop standards and foundations for the establishment of traditional Korean gardens and aims to identify the mechanism and subsequent effect of fair gardens in American and Europe on the propagation and diffusion of the traditional Japanese garden. Fair gardens which were constructed between 1867 and 1939 were investigated to understand them and the ripple effect that they had on cultural dissemination. The results were as follows: Culturally, the Meiji government adopted Wagener`s advice on the theme of display- including culture and handicraft-and the gardens with traditional buildings were perceived as one unit and then used as promotional tools as part of a national strategy. As a result, the stroll style garden in the Edo period and tea garden were recognized as the representative Japanese garden in America and Europe. Politically, the Japanese garden in the American context was adopted as examples of `exotic beauty` and `cultural heritage` which therefore allowed the Japanese government to achieve it`s goal of encouraging friendly relations and the lessening of hostility towards them. Throughout the traditional Japanese garden, Japan with it`s rich history presented an ideal - uniquely distinctive from the West. Using `tradition` and `nature` as keywords, the Japanese government set it`s global image as `perpetual tranquility`. Socioeconomically, the Japanese garden which was maintained after the fair, played a consistent role as a model of the Japanese culture. Many professionals from Japan who prepared the Japanese villages and gardens for the world fairs in America and Europe, remained in these countries following construction and it were these opportunities that allowed the Japanese garden to be integrated into local Western society.
... One aspect of the well known enthusiasm for Japonisme in late 19th Britain was the desire by wealthy British 'to capture' Japanese gardens and transplant them to Britain. Japanese gardens and plants from Japan were highly fashionable in Britain from the 1880s to the 1920s Conway 1988 ;Tachibana 2000 ;Herris, 2001 ;Tachibana et al, 2004 ;Tachibana, 2008 ;2010 ;Tachibana and Watkins, 2010 . This fashion was driven both by the excitement over the introduction of many new garden plants from Japan and the enormous interest in Japanese design, arts and crafts known as Japonisme Sato and Watanabe 1991 ;Watanabe 1991 ;Ono, 2008 . ...
This paper explores the influence of cross-cultural knowledge derived from travel and specialist horticultural education on the gardening work of three women in the early 20th century. Ethel Webb and Ella Christie were both wealthy, independent women who travelled to Japan. On their return home they created Japanese gardens on their private estates. The creation of Japanese gardens was particularly fashionable in early 20th century Britain. The third woman is the Japanese horticulturalist Taki Nakanome (nee Handa) who studied at Studley College in Britain and directed the construction of a Japanese garden at Ella Christie's estate, Cowden Castle. The pioneering Japanese horticulturalist, Taki Nakanome (nee Handa), after returning to Japan taught botany, horticulture and English at Doshisha Women's College in Kyoto, Japan. Later in her life, Taki ran an orchard at the Nakanome family estate at Mizusawa, Iwate prefecture during the 1920s. Ella Christie's employment of a female garden designer, Taki Nakanome (nee Handa) in 1908, was obscured by the fact that she was a foreigner. Her exoticness was perhaps more important than her gender to create authenticity.
... For instance, the gardenesque style displayed exotic plants (kalmias, rhododendrons, camellias, oaks, magnolias, acacias…) in dedicated areas of the public gardens where
they
could
live
and
prosper
(Londei,
1982;
Loudon,
1840). Exotic
species
were
not
valued per se, rather they were valued as discovered by science and domesticated by the technical expertise of Western countries, and contributed to celebrating the rationality of the colonial sciences by putting forward control over diverse forms of life (Tachibana, Daniels and Watkins, 2004) gardens and the control of working class people in European liberal society (Osborne and Rose, 1999: 746). For instance, as Colin Ward (2002) reports, Loudon, in planning Derby's Arboretum explicitly emphasized a polished and manicured environment by grouping together indigenous and exotic plants. ...
This article analyses Bent Flyvbjerg’s ‘dark side of planning’ theory and proposes to increase its critical strength by including, together with ideas of rationality and power, two further theoretical tools: the Foucauldian concepts of governmentality and biopolitics. The potentiality of this inclusion is exemplified by the analysis provided about the influence of 18th-century colonial governmentality on the real rationality of public garden planning in the modern liberal cities of most western European colonising countries. It aims to show that Flyvbjerg’s concept of ‘real rationality’ can be usefully regarded as the product of a broad interpretation of biopolitical technologies, including the disciplining of non-human further than human life, which makes it possible to control the ‘uncivilised’ instincts of society through public garden planning. This article aims to suggest, that by digging deep into the hidden rationality of planning, even in those cases in which only the progressive face of power is apparently involved, a dark side of planning is unavoidably present in the form of a disciplinary power.
... The export is achieved by copying and re-applying standard approaches of planning and design, and running the facility as a Japanese garden. It should also be noted that the Japanese culture was favoured in Europe and the rest of the globe to a very different extend because of the global conflicts of the 20 th c.: WWI and WW2 (Tachibana et al. 2004). The complexity of the question lies in the ability of the exported tradition of a remote oriental country to integrate into the local cultural environment and it's contribution to the local character of national landscapes and townscapes. ...
Since the 19th century, a Japanese garden as a cultural phenomenon with a millennium-old history of religion and philosophy-based landscaping art has been exported to different regions of the globe and built in countries far from the land of its origin. The article focuses on two aspects of Japanese gardens: the basic and more specific principles of planning and design of a traditional Japanese garden, and the related discourse of a tradition of exporting its planning and design cultural tradition outside of Japan. Based on analysed international examples of Japanese-style gardens, the specific traits of planning the landscape of these gardens were identified. The narrative of multiple psycho-emotional effects that these gardens have on their users and visitors is disclosed in correlation with the specific aspects of their planning and design. The culture of exporting a Japanese garden tradition overseas is discussed and the important principles for introducing a Japanese garden to a remote cultural context are spotlighted. The concluding remarks on the user-oriented culture of exporting a Japanese garden as a complete planning and design system of landscape architecture, reflect author’s aspiration to open a wider cross-professional discussion and research on the topic.
Santrauka
Japonijos sodai – tai tūkstantmetes tradicijas turintis filosofija ir religija grįstas kraštovaizdžio architektūros kultūrinis reiškinys, kurio pavyzdžiai nuo XIX a. yra eksportuojami ir įrengiami skirtinguose pasaulio regionuose. Kraštovaizdžio architektūros požiūriu straipsnyje nagrinėjami du Japonijos sodų aspektai: esminiai šių sodų suplanavimo ir įrengimo principai bei specifiniai bruožai, taip pat Japonijos sodų meninės tradicijos eksporto ir sklaidos užsienyje klausimai. Visame pasaulyje garsių Japonijos sodų pavyzdžių apžvalga ir pasirinktų Baltijos jūros regiono pavyzdžių tyrimas atskleidžia esminius šių sodų suplanavimo principus, kurie sietini su lankytojams formuojamu psichologiniu emociniu poveikiu. Aptariant Japonijos sodų eksporto į kitus etninius ir geografinius regionus klausimus iškeliama jų integravimo į skirtingą kultūrinį kontekstą problema. Straipsnis apibendrinamas baigiamosiomis nuostatomis, kurios apibrėžia tolesnio Japonijos sodų meno diskurso lauką nuo vartotojo poreikių iki vientisos kraštovaizdžio sistemos eksporto galimybių, išreiškia autoriaus siekį atverti šia tema platesnį tyrimų ir diskusijų lauką.
First Publish Online: 22 May 2013
Reikšminiai žodžiai: kraštovaizdžio architektūra, Japonijos sodai, kultūrinis integravimas, teritorijų planavimas, urbanistika, kultūrinis eksportas
... 23 The technique of miniaturization enables a direct interaction between humans and nature not just visually but also physically in the garden. 24 The more the garden depends on the human proportion, the more it becomes strong in terms of harmony. The human scale is achieved by arranged stepping stones, rocks and by plant pruning techniques. ...
The natural, exotic and mystic properties of Japanese gardens differentiate them
from other gardens in the world. Since Japanese gardens are created in many
countries, many garden designers and garden users are curious about the main
principles that influence the creation of these gardens. The objective of this research
was to evaluate the adequacy of the Japanese garden in Konya in Turkey
through application of the principles of the Japanese garden design. According
to the research, the created garden in Turkey may represent a good example of
Japanese gardens. The results obtained by this study may be taken as guiding
principles for the creation of thematic Japanese gardens in the world.
... 23 The technique of miniaturization enables a direct interaction between humans and nature not just visually but also physically in the garden. 24 The more the garden depends on the human proportion, the more it becomes strong in terms of harmony. The human scale is achieved by arranged stepping stones, rocks and by plant pruning techniques. ...
The natural, exotic and mystic properties of Japanese gardens differentiate them from other gardens in the world. Since Japanese gardens are created in many countries, many garden designers and garden users are curious about the main principles that influence the creation of these gardens. The objective of this research was to evaluate the adequacy of the Japanese garden in Konya in Turkey through application of the principles of the Japanese garden design. According to the research, the created garden in Turkey may represent a good example of Japanese gardens. The results obtained by this study may be taken as guiding principles for the creation of thematic Japanese gardens in the world.
