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Coccolithophore cells covered with calcium carbonate (chalk) scales. Progress in understanding the unique physiology of these globally important organisms will help us to understand how they may respond to changing ocean chemistry. Image courtesy Dr. Alison Taylor.
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Ocean acidification will potentially inhibit calcification by marine organisms; however, the response of the most prolific ocean calcifiers, coccolithophores, to this perturbation remains under characterized. Here we report novel chemical constraints on the response of the widespread coccolithophore species Ochrosphaera neapolitana (O. neapolitana) to...
A consistently calibrated 40-year length dataset of visible channel remote sensing reflectance has been derived from the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) sensor global time-series. The dataset uses as its source the Pathfinder Atmospheres – Extended (PATMOS-x) v5.3 Climate Data Record (CDR) for top-of-atmosphere (TOA) visible channe...
Abstract Anthropogenic CO2 emissions are inundating the upper ocean, acidifying the water, and altering the habitat for marine phytoplankton. These changes are thought to be particularly influential for calcifying phytoplankton, namely, coccolithophores. Coccolithophores are widespread and account for a substantial portion of open ocean calcificati...
Emiliania huxleyi is an important component of the global carbon and sulfur cycles and is known to be sensitive to ultraviolet (UV) radiation. We investigated the influence of radiation intensity and of short-term exposure to UV radiation on the per-cell amount and intracellular concentration of dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP). E. huxleyi (strain...
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... In several recent publications we have advocated that shellfish farmers should 47 greatly expand their production specifically to generate more shell to sequester atmos- 48 pheric carbon [1 -9]. Our core conviction is that humankind must look to the oceans for 49 the solution to the excess CO2 in the atmosphere that drives climate change, and that ma- 50 rine calcifiers (coccolithophores, Foraminifera, Mollusca, Crustacea, Anthozoa, Echino-51 dermata) are the tools that will provide that solution. ...
Today’s marine calcifiers (coccolithophore algae, Foraminifera [protists], Mollusca, Crustacea, Anthozoa [corals], Echinodermata) remove carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) from the atmosphere, converting it into solid calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ) which is stable for geological periods of time. These organisms could serve as a biotechnological carbon capture and storage mechanism to control climate change. Two criticisms made about this are: (i) ocean acidification has allegedly been shown to cause reduced shell formation in calcifiers; (ii) the calcification reaction that precipitates CaCO 3 crystals into the shells is alleged to return CO 2 to the atmosphere. In this review we assess the evidence concerning such criticisms and find reasons to doubt both. Experiments showing that ocean acidification is damaging to calcifiers have all used experimental pH levels that are not projected to be reached in the oceans until the next century or later; today’s oceans, despite recent changes, are alkaline in pH. Claiming precipitation of CaCO 3 during calcification as a net source of CO 2 to the atmosphere is an oversimplification of ocean chemistry that is true only in open water environments. Living calcifiers do not carry out the calcification reaction in an open water environment in equilibrium with the atmosphere. The chemistry that we know as life takes place on the surfaces of enzymatic polypeptides, within organelles that have phospholipid membranes, contained in a cell enclosed within another phospholipid bilayer membrane specifically to isolate the chemistry of life from the open water environment. Ignoring what is known about the biology, physiology, and molecular cell biology of living organisms, calcifiers of all types especially, leads to erroneous conclusions and deficient advice about the potential for calcifier biotechnology to contribute to atmosphere remediation. Net removal of CO 2 from the atmosphere by calcifiers is only achieved by the CaCO 3 stored in the shell, coccoliths, or foram tests that are left when they die. To capitalise on this requires a change in paradigm towards cultivating calcifiers for their CaCO 3 rather than their meat or other products. We conclude that the world’s aquaculture industries already operate the biotechnology that, with massive and immediate global expansion, can contribute to sustainably controlling atmospheric CO 2 levels at reasonable cost and with several positive benefits in addition to carbon sequestration.
... In several recent publications we have advocated that shellfish farmers should 47 greatly expand their production specifically to generate more shell to sequester atmos- 48 pheric carbon [1 -9]. Our core conviction is that humankind must look to the oceans for 49 the solution to the excess CO2 in the atmosphere that drives climate change, and that ma- 50 rine calcifiers (coccolithophores, Foraminifera, Mollusca, Crustacea, Anthozoa, Echino-51 dermata) are the tools that will provide that solution. ...
Today’s marine calcifiers (coccolithophore algae, Foraminifera [protists], Mollusca, Crustacea, Anthozoa [corals], Echinodermata) remove carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) from the atmosphere, converting it into solid calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ) which is stable for geological periods of time. These organisms could serve as a biotechnological carbon capture and storage mechanism to control climate change. Two criticisms made about this are: (i) ocean acidification has allegedly been shown to cause reduced shell formation in calcifiers; (ii) the calcification reaction that precipitates CaCO 3 crystals into the shells is alleged to return CO 2 to the atmosphere. In this review we assess the evidence concerning such criticisms and find reasons to doubt both. Experiments showing that ocean acidification is damaging to calcifiers have all used experimental pH levels that are not projected to be reached in the oceans until the next century or later; today’s oceans, despite recent changes, are alkaline in pH. Claiming precipitation of CaCO 3 during calcification as a net source of CO 2 to the atmosphere is an oversimplification of ocean chemistry that is true only in open water environments. Living calcifiers do not carry out the calcification reaction in an open water environment in equilibrium with the atmosphere. The chemistry that we know as life takes place on the surfaces of enzymatic polypeptides, within organelles that have phospholipid membranes, contained in a cell enclosed within another phospholipid bilayer membrane specifically to isolate the chemistry of life from the open water environment. Ignoring what is known about the biology, physiology, and molecular cell biology of living organisms, calcifiers of all types especially, leads to erroneous conclusions and deficient advice about the potential for biotechnology to contribute to atmosphere remediation. We conclude that the world’s aquaculture industries already operate the biotechnology that, with massive and immediate global expansion, can contribute to sustainably controlling atmospheric CO 2 levels at reasonable cost and with several positive benefits in addition to carbon sequestration.
... 2HCO3 -+ Ca 2+ ⇌ CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O [reaction 1] (Mackinder et al., 2010;Mejia, 2011;Monteiro et al., 2016). ...
Today's marine calcifiers (coccolithophore algae, Foraminifera (protists), Mollusca, Crustacea, corals) remove carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere, converting it into solid calcium carbonate (CaCO3) which is stable for geological periods of time. Consequently, these organisms could serve as a biotechnological carbon capture and storage mechanism, contributing to control of climate change. Two criticisms are made about the use of this straightforward biotechnology as a carbon sequestration tool: (i) ocean acidification which has already occurred has allegedly been shown to cause reduced shell formation in calcifiers. (ii) The biological calcification reaction that precipitates CaCO3 crystals into the shells is itself "…the major way by which CO2 is returned to the atmosphere". In this review we assess the evidence concerning both criticisms and find that both are scientific myths. Experiments showing that ocean "acidification" is damaging to calcifiers have all used experimental pH levels that are not projected to be reached in the oceans until the next century. Furthermore, there are several reports showing that calcification is improved in today's less alkaline/high CO2 conditions in tested calcifiers. The claim that precipitation of CaCO3 in the calcification reaction is a source of CO2 to the atmosphere is a misunderstanding of calcifier physiology and molecular cell biology, and an oversimplification of ocean chemistry. The positive message remaining is that the world's aquaculture industries already operate the biotechnology that can control atmospheric CO2. By scaling it up, an enormous and sustainable contribution could be made toward atmosphere remediation. [243 words]
... Ca 2+ + 2HCO3 − ⇌ CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O (Mackinder et al., 2010;Mejia, 2011;Monteiro et al., 2016). ...
Cultivating coccolithophore algae for carbon sequestration is discussed. Coccolithophores have been major calcium carbonate producers in the world’s oceans for about 250 million years. Today, they account for about a third of the total marine CaCO3 production by coating their single cells externally with plates of microcrystalline CaCO3. The possibility that these algae could be used to trap atmospheric CO2 with existing technology has not been widely considered. There is scope for both high technology cultivation in bioreactors and low technology cultivation in terraced raceway ponds or lagoons on tropical coastal sites. The latter could produce a sludge of pure CaCO3 as a feedstock for cement production in place of the fossilised limestone currently used (cement production accounts for around 8% of industrial fossil CO2 emissions). On the high seas coccolithophores naturally produce extensive blooms, which emit the volatile gas dimethyl sulfide to the atmosphere, where it promotes formation of clouds that block solar radiation. The vision is for aquaculture nurseries onboard factory ships, cultivating both coccolithophores and bivalve molluscs, creating and maintaining blooms of coccolithophores in the oceanic high seas to sequester carbon from the atmosphere and generate cloud cover to cool the immediate environment.
... Ca 2+ + 2HCO 3 − ⇌ CaCO 3 + CO 2 + H 2 O (Mackinder et al., 2010;Mejia, 2011;Monteiro et al., 2016). ...
The potential for cultivation of coccolithophore golden-brown algae for carbon sequestration is addressed in this chapter. Coccolithophores have been major calcium carbonate producers in the world's oceans for about 250 million years. Today they account for about a third of the total marine CaCO 3 production by coating their single cells externally with delicately sculptured plates of microcrystalline CaCO 3. The possibility that these algae could be used to trap atmospheric CO 2 with existing technology has not been widely recognised. There is scope, however, for both high technology cultivation in bioreactors and low technology cultivation in terraced raceway ponds or lagoons on tropical coastal sites. The latter could produce a sludge of pure CaCO 3 that could be harvested as a feedstock for cement production in place of the fossiliferous limestone that is currently used (cement production accounts for around 8% of industrial fossil CO 2 emissions). Bioreactor cultivation of genetically-engineered coccolithophores could produce customised calcite crystals for nanotechnology industries. On the high seas coccolithophores naturally produce extensive blooms, and the blooms emit a volatile gas (dimethyl sulfide) to the atmosphere, where it promotes formation of clouds that block solar radiation. Imagine aquaculture nurseries onboard factory ships, cultivating both coccolithophores and bivalve molluscs. During their open ocean cruises the ships could produce biodegradable floats already spawned with fixed juvenile bivalve molluscs and streams of coccolithophore algae that could be released into the ocean currents and ocean gyres nourished by artificial upwelling of nutrient-rich waters when the ship deploys its perpetual salt fountains. The dual aim to be creating and maintaining blooms of coccolithophores in the oceanic high seas to sequester carbon from the atmosphere, and generation of cloud cover to cool the immediate environment.
... Thus, it is hypothesized that for coccolithophores, like for diatoms[Chuang et al., 2014[Chuang et al., , 2015a[Chuang et al., , 2015b, it is the organic components that play a major role in the scavenging and fractionation of particle-reactive radionuclides in the ocean rather than the CaCO 3 coccosphere. Additionally, coccolithophores require large amounts of dissolved inorganic carbon and calcium for calcification (i.e., biogenic calcite[Mejia, 2011]), thus providing an essential carbon export to the bottom of the ocean in the form of CaCO 3[Marsh, 2003;Berelson et al., 2007;Ziveri et al., 2007;Smith et al., 2012]. Given CaCO 3 has been deemed a major carrier phase for selected radionuclide tracers [e.g.,Chase et al., 2002], understanding the relationship between such tracers and the main components of coccolithophoreassociated particles and/or biopolymers is important and can provide new insights into the predictions of carbon flux in the ocean when natural radiotracers are used. ...
Laboratory incubation experiments using the coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi were conducted in the presence of 234Th, 233Pa, 210Pb, 210Po and 7Be to differentiate radionuclide uptake to the CaCO3 coccosphere from coccolithophore-associated biopolymers. The coccosphere (biogenic calcite exterior and its associated biopolymers), extracellular (non-attached and attached exopolymeric substances), and intracellular (sodium-dodecyl-sulfate extractable and Fe-Mn associated metabolites) fractions were obtained by sequentially extraction after E. huxleyi reached its stationary growth phase. Radionuclide partitioning and the composition of different organic compound classes, including proteins, total carbohydrates (TCHO) and uronic acids (URA) were assessed. 210Po was closely associated with the more hydrophobic biopolymers (high protein/TCHO ratio, e.g. in attached exopolymeric substances), while 234Th and 233Pa showed similar partitioning behavior with most activity being distributed in URA-enriched, non-attached exopolymeric substances and intracellular biopolymers. 234Th and 233Pa were nearly undetectable in the coccosphere, with a minor abundance of organic components in the associated biopolymers. These findings provide solid evidence that biogenic calcite is not the actual main carrier phase for Th and Pa isotopes in the ocean. In contrast, both 210Pb and 7Be were found to be mostly concentrated in the CaCO3 coccosphere, likely substituting for Ca2+ during coccolith formation. Our results demonstrate that even small cells (E. huxleyi) can play an important role in the scavenging and fractionation of radionuclides. Furthermore, the distinct partitioning behavior of radionuclides in diatoms (previous studies) and coccolithophores (present study) explains the difference in the scavenging of radionuclides between diatoms- and coccolithophore-dominated marine environments.
6. Moore, D. (2022). Coccolithophore Cultivation and Deployment. In: Aquaculture: Ocean Blue Carbon Meets UN-SDGS. (eds D. Moore, M. Heilweck & P. Petros), Chapter 6, pp. 155-176. A volume in the Sustainable Development Goals Series. Springer, Cham. ISBN: 9783030948450. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-94846-7_6.
6.1 In this Chapter… The potential for the cultivation of coccolithophore golden-brown algae for carbon sequestration is addressed in this chapter. Coccolithophores have been major calcium carbonate producers in the world’s oceans for about 250 million years. Today they account for about a third of the total marine CaCO3 production by coating their single cells externally with delicately sculptured plates of microcrystalline CaCO3. The possibility that these algae could be used to trap atmospheric CO2 with existing technology has not been widely recognised. There is scope, however, for both high technology cultivation in bioreactors and low technology cultivation in terraced raceway ponds or lagoons on tropical coastal sites. The latter could produce a sludge of pure CaCO3 that could be harvested as a feedstock for cement production in place of the fossiliferous limestone that is currently used (cement production accounts for around 8% of industrial fossil CO2 emissions). Bioreactor cultivation of genetically engineered coccolithophores could produce customised calcite crystals for nanotechnology industries. On the high seas coccolithophores naturally produce extensive blooms, and the blooms emit a volatile gas (dimethyl sulfide) to the atmosphere, where it promotes the formation of clouds that block solar radiation. Imagine aquaculture nurseries onboard factory ships, cultivating both coccolithophores and bivalve molluscs. During their open ocean cruises the ships could produce biodegradable floats already spawned with fixed juvenile bivalve molluscs and streams of coccolithophore algae that could be released into the ocean currents and ocean gyres nourished by artificial upwelling of nutrient-rich waters when the ship deploys its perpetual salt fountains. The dual aim to be creating and maintaining blooms of coccolithophores in the oceanic high seas to sequester carbon from the atmosphere, and generation of cloud cover to cool the immediate environment.
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022
D. Moore et al., Aquaculture: Ocean Blue Carbon Meets UN-SDGS. Sustainable Development Goals Series.
FULL TEXT available from this URL: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-94846-7_6
