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Pallets are the tiny cogs in the machine that drive transportation in the global economy. The profusion of pallets in today's supply chain warrants the investigation and discussion of their respective environmental impacts. This paper reviews the life cycle assessment studies analyzing the environmental impacts of pallets with the intent of providi...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... can be classified based on their raw materials, type, dimensions, and management strategy ( Figure 2). Considering raw materials, most of the pallets are made of wood (softwood, hardwood, technical wood), plastic (virgin plastic, recycled plastic), cardboard, or wood-polymer composites. ...
Context 2
... can be classified based on their raw materials, type, dimensions, and management strategy ( Figure 2). Considering raw materials, most of the pallets are made of wood (softwood, hardwood, technical wood), plastic (virgin plastic, recycled plastic), cardboard, or wood-polymer composites. ...
Context 3
... can be classified based on their raw materials, type, dimensions, and management strategy ( Figure 2). Considering raw materials, most of the pallets are made of wood (softwood, hardwood, technical wood), plastic (virgin plastic, recycled plastic), cardboard, or wood-polymer composites. ...
Context 4
... can be classified based on their raw materials, type, dimensions, and management strategy ( Figure 2). Considering raw materials, most of the pallets are made of wood (softwood, hardwood, technical wood), plastic (virgin plastic, recycled plastic), cardboard, or wood-polymer composites. ...
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... Due to the volume of lumber used by the wooden pallet industry, quantifying the environmental impact of wooden pallets has been the focus of multiple research projects (Bilbao et al. 2011;Carrano et al. 2014Carrano et al. , 2015Niero et al. 2014;Park and Horvath 2018;Deviatkin et al. 2019;Koci 2019;Alanya-Rosenbaum et al. 2021;Khan et al. 2021). There have also been tools put in place by the National Wooden Pallet and Container Association (NWPCA), such as a life cycle assessment (LCA) and subsequent environmental product declaration (EPD), which can help consumers understand the environmental impacts of wooden pallets (Alanya-Rosenbaum et al. 2021). ...
It is estimated that there are 3.1 billion pallets in circulation in the United States, and the majority of these pallets are made of wood. This research was conducted to obtain important information about the market and raw material usage trends in the wooden pallet and container industry from 2019 through 2021. The results revealed that the wooden pallet and container industry produced an estimated 919 million new pallets in 2021, which is an estimated 75% increase over 2016. The 48” x 40” pallet size continued to be the dominant new pallet size with a 29% market share. The share of softwood lumber used in the industry has steadily increased since 2016, and it accounted for 81% of the lumber used in pallet production in 2021. The industry used 38% of the total sawn softwood and hardwood lumber produced in the U.S. The industry also produced 280 million repaired and remanufactured pallets; this is a 16.4% decrease compared to 2016. Approximately 22% of respondents stated that they were not affected by the pandemic. A majority of respondents (51%) stated that they exceeded their 2019 sales, and only 12% saw no change in sales in 2020 compared to 2019.
... It is affected by the packaging's resistance to damage and biological degradation. Replacing wood with another material does not solve the problem of demand for packaging materials, as other materials, such as metals and plastics, are also scarce and at the same time pose an environmental burden [Deviatkin et al., 2019;Khan et al., 2021]. In addition, they are more expensive than wood material, are more difficult to process, and do not combine the positive characteristics that wood has. ...
The manufacture of packaging products requires determining the strength requirements of the components that make up the structural elements of pallets, crates and other packaging. Wood, as a renewable material, is the basic raw material for manufacturing wooden pallets. The premise of the research is that the strength of pallets is derived from the characteristics of the components of the subassemblies. Strength tests of lumber were carried out, which determine the evaluation of the suitability of sawn materials. Verification of raw material properties determines the adaptation of individual assemblies to static and dynamic force loads. Pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) lumber was verified, taking into account the origin of the cross-sectional area and the presence of anatomical structure features. The results of the study confirm the influence of wood origin on the suitability of pine wood for wood packaging. The influence of a certain origin from the log can translate into changes in strength properties. It was found that wood density is not a critical parameter for evaluating the strength of lumber and product. Tests of separated structural lumber for wood packaging indicate significant differences in the condition of the wood and the magnitude of the strength parameter.
... In this context, a "cycle" refers to the trips made within a supply chain, starting from the trademark industry to a specific retailer and to the nearest Nolpal Point. This functional unit, frequently used in similar studies, was selected because it provides a consistent framework for comparing the studied scenarios [15]. ...
As global trade continues to intensify, the role of pallets becomes increasingly crucial, as they are essential for the movement of goods worldwide. Wooden pallets are the most common packaging type in Italy and Europe, and their widespread use in distribution and freight transportation means that the relatively minor environmental impact of an individual pallet is greatly magnified by the overall scale of operations. The management of pallets can significantly influence both the emissions and the costs associated with pallet operations. This work presents a case study representative of the emerging trends in sustainable transportation and logistics in Italy, aiming to compare the carbon footprint of the standard pallet exchange system with the system employed by the company Nolpal. Unlike the conventional exchange model, which requires companies to purchase and own EPAL pallets, Nolpal provides leased pallets to the market across Italy, supported by a nationwide network of collection hubs. A comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) between the Nolpal system and the conventional pallet exchange system showed that Nolpal’s approach achieves a 35% reduction in CO2-eq emissions. These findings highlight how the company’s model could serve as a blueprint for future advancements in more sustainable pallet management strategies.
... The multiple utilization approach is already sustainable, but data gaps and anomalies mean that not all movements, types of use or even misuse can be identified, which leaves room for improvement. [43,44] The assessment of life cycles is depending on data, which is often unavailable when it comes to the movement and handling of pallets. The gap described, as well as the upcoming opportunity towards automated and dynamic life cycle assessments [45,46], motivates our contribution. ...
Pallets are one of the most important load carriers for international supply chains. Yet, continuously tracking activities such as Driving, Lifting or Standing along their life cycle is hardly possible. This contribution is the first to propose a taxonomy for sensor-based activity recognition of pallets. Different types of acceleration sensors are deployed in three logistical scenarios for creating a benchmark dataset. A random forest classifier is deployed for supervised learning. The results demonstrate that automated, sensor-based life cycle assessment based on the proposed taxonomy is feasible. All data and corresponding videos are published in the SPARL dataset [1].
... These plastic pallets can be reused multiple times, and possess strengths comparable to those of their wooden counterparts. However, their production process consumes more energy than standard wooden pallets, resulting in a greater impact on climate change (Deviatkin et al., 2019;Khan et al., 2021). ...
... O quinto projeto caseiro se referiu à transformação de pallets de madeira em móveis e utensílios domésticos. Pallets são plataformas horizontais de madeira ou de outros materiais, com medidas padronizadas, utilizadas para montagem, empilhamento e armazenamento de produtos, além do manuseio e transporte de mercadorias (Deviatkin et al., 2019). Por causa do uso com materiais pesados, os pallets possuem vida útil muita curta, tornandose mais um problema quando descartados na natureza. ...
Esta pesquisa apresenta práticas/ações ambientais realizadas por estudantes do curso de Licenciatura Plena em Geografia, do Centro de Humanidades/CH, da Universidade Estadual da Paraíba (UEPB), durante o período da pandemia de Covid-19. As práticas foram desenvolvidas em forma de pesquisa-ação, pelos estudantes de Geografia, em seus ciclos sociais, para despertar a sensibilização/conscientização ambiental. Estas seguiram metodologias diversas e mostraram que gestos simples do cotidiano podem contribuir para a preservação ambiental e a construção de hábitos sustentáveis que, atrelados à conscientização e sensibilização, procuram valorizar os recursos naturais e combater o consumismo imposto pela sociedade capitalista.
... À2 of surface area with a maximum of 34 kg. 69 In most storage locations, another pallet with 9 rows is placed on top. The site will have a total of 18 rows and two pallets. ...
Disposing of plastic water bottles contributes to environmental pollution and waste buildup. Choosing recycling options helps mitigate these adverse impacts and supports a more sustainable approach to waste management. Polyethylene terephthalate constitutes the primary component in water bottles. This study focuses on a water bottle design model, subjecting it to simulations that replicate stresses encountered during storage, transportation, and usage. Polyethylene terephthalate bottles successfully underwent stress analysis, surpassing all stipulated requirements, the results indicate stress values below the yield point and safety factors exceeding one. This affirms the product’s superior quality and its ability to withstand even the most rigorous conditions. The analysis further identified peak stress values (59.819, 65.124, and 34.330 MPa) in distinct scenarios, noting that the bottle may incur damage beyond the critical vertical load of 88.4 N. These findings underscore the efficacy of the proposed process in validating stresses in water bottles pre-manufacture. Consequently, this approach aids in waste reduction and addresses environmental challenges associated with recycling, including resource and energy consumption, contamination, and inefficiencies in recycling systems. In essence, this study constitutes a substantial contribution to the realm of sustainable bottle design. It stands out as one of the few comprehensive investigations into the structural impact on the durability and sustainability of water bottles. This research has the potential to emerge as a significant advancement in the development of more environmentally friendly bottle designs.
... Sengon wood with an age of approximately 3-5 years was sawn into block measuring 300 mm long, 50 mm wide, and 100 mm high according to ISO 6780 2003 (Deviatkin et al. 2019). Wood block samples were dried in the sun for two days to remove the sap and equalize the moisture content to around 30-40% on a dry basis. ...
This research aimed to determine the thermal characteristics of sengon wood due to drying at temperature of 70, 80, and 90oC with air velocity of 1 and 3 m/s using infrared (IR) and combined infrared-hot air (IR-HA) method. The thermal characteristics analyzed included temperature distribution, reduction in moisture content, and drying rate. The results of drying wood samples using IR method showed that the fastest drying time was obtained at 90oC with air velocity of 1 m/s. However, for combined IR-HA method, the optimal condition was achieved at air velocity of 3 m/s. The largest drying rate attained using combined IR-HA method was 0.27 g/min, while the smallest was recorded at 0.094 g/min with IR method. These results showed that combined IR-HA method produced a more evenly distributed temperature and faster drying time compared to the IR method.
... (3) Pine (conifers) is the most common wood used in pallet manufacturing. (4) The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) rules the "International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures 15 (ISPM 15)" on the phytosanitary treatment of all trading wood materials. IPSM 15 mandates that wooden packaging must be heat-treated or fumigated with methyl bromide. ...
... IPSM 15 mandates that wooden packaging must be heat-treated or fumigated with methyl bromide. (4,5 ) Thermal treatment is found among the mostly used authorized treatments. Heat treatment is supposed to be more environmentally friendly than fumigation, which has a detrimental effect 474 not only on the environment but also on health. ...
This study is the second part of a previous work recently published about the optimization a new facility for convective heat phytosanitary treatment system applying the heat of exhaust gases from a distillery boiler as energy source for the pallets thermal disinfection. In the mentioned work, a control volume element of 3D finite heat transfer mathematical model was applied and correlated with experimental data in order to study the optimal operational conditions of air temperature and retention time when block-type pallets are thermally treated. However, optimal conditions for the phytosanitary treatment of the stringer-type pallets (the second more used in world-wide trading operations) in the presented facility has not been assessed so far. This case study presents the development and application of a control volume element model of 2D finite heat transfer mathematical model to optimize the operational parameters for the phytosanitary treatment of stringer-class wood pallets. The optimization of treatment temperature and retention timeissimulated based on previous findings reported. Optimal conditions were found for stringer-type pallets withair temperature at 80°C and 95 min of treatment time. The thermal efficiency, the energy consumption index of per treated pallet at the studied conditions and the economic feasibility of the new treatment system is discussed.
... Wooden pallets were assumed to be used to transport the blocks. A reuse of 22 times was considered an average observed in LCA studies of pallets (Deviatkin et al. 2019). ...
Purpose Bio-based insulation materials are one of the most promising solutions for reducing the environmental impacts of building envelopes. Among these materials, the environmental benefits of mycelium-based materials have merely been investigated, despite their promising technical and thermal properties. In this paper, we perform a first prospective cradle- to-grave life cycle assessment (LCA) of mycelium-based composite blocks.
Methods Anattributionalcradle-to-gateLCAofthelaboratoryproductionofmycelium-basedcompositeswasfirstperformed,includ- ing 11 environmental impact indicators. Then, scenarios were defined to scale up the technology to the level of industrial production, including the remaining life cycle modules to perform a cradle-to-grave analysis. Biogenic and metabolic carbon were considered by applying the static−1/+1 approach and following the current LCA standards. Future-oriented energy and transport mixes were also included as an additional scenario, systematically modifying both the foreground and background data. Finally, the industrially scaled-up technology and alternative insulation materials were compared with these future conditions (as applied to both materials). Results and discussion Considering climate change, the results are encouraging in comparison to those for traditional plastic insulation, but do not necessarily surpass those for other existing materials such as rock wool. However, trade-offs are observed in other indicators, for which mycelium-based composites tend to perform worse than traditional insulation materials. The industrial scale-up reduced impacts for most indicators, but a considerable trade-off was observed with regard to terrestrial ecotoxicity. The main driver for the remaining greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions was found to be the electricity use during the manufacturing phase. We consider the inclusion of the other life cycle stages as relevant, as this increased the GHG emissions by 10%. Limitations of the current LCA standards, however, are noted and discussed, especially regarding the cascading use of biogenic materials, and highlight the relevance of this case study.
Conclusions Mycelium-based composites show a potential for future development, but careful attention should be paid to reducing electricity needs in their manufacturing process. Further improvements could also be made by using fast-growing biogenic materials as a substrate. In particular, we encourage researchers to include all of the life cycle stages in future stud- ies, especially if biogenic emissions are considered.
