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![Figure 5: Illustration of a thermo-electric cooling module [166]](profile/Shashank-Arora-3/publication/327686932/figure/fig5/AS:704655407448064@1545014349343/Illustration-of-a-thermo-electric-cooling-module-166_Q320.jpg)
Li-ion battery cells are temperature sensitive devices. Their performance and cycle life are compromised under extreme ambient environment. Efficient regulation of cell temperature is, therefore, a pre-requisite for safe and reliable battery operation. In addition, modularity-in-design of battery packs is required to offset high manufacturing costs...
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... One of the most used schemes in battery layout is the modularity approach [11,12]. For some scholars, battery modularity can offset the high manufacturing costs of electric vehicles due to its flexibility and simplified installation phase [13]. However, future trends aim at implementing solutions such as Cell-To-Pack (CTP) and Cell-To-Chassis (CTC). ...
Nowadays, battery design must be considered a multidisciplinary activity focused on product sustainability in terms of environmental impacts and cost. The paper reviews the design tools and methods in the context of Li-ion battery packs. The discussion focuses on different aspects, from thermal analysis to management and safety. The paper aims to investigate what has been achieved in the last twenty years to understand current and future trends when designing battery packs. The goal is to analyze the methods for defining the battery pack's layout and structure using tools for modeling, simulations, life cycle analysis, optimization, and machine learning. The target concerns electric and hybrid vehicles and energy storage systems in general. The paper makes an original classification of past works defining seven levels of design approaches for battery packs. The final discussion analyzes the correlation between the changes in the design methods and the increasing demand for battery packs. The outcome of this paper allows the reader to analyze the evolutions of the design methods and practices in battery packs and to understand future developments.
... As the common greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) increases yearly due to the burning of fossil fuels during transportation and energy generation, renewable resources such as solar and wind energy, in combination with electric vehicles, are becoming increasingly preferable for reducing greenhouse gas emissions [3,4]. Along with the surge in EV usage, concerns for safety and reliability also arise, especially the likelihood of cataclysmic thermal runaway in lithium-ion batteries [5]. With a high demand for safe batteries, application areas of Li-ion batteries other than EVs include in domestic gadgets, military applications, space applications, etc. ...
Lithium-ion batteries prove to be a promising technology for achieving present and future goals regarding energy resources. However, a few cases of lithium-ion battery fires and failures caused by thermal runaway have been reported in various news articles; therefore, it is important to enhance the safety of the batteries and their end users. The early detection of thermal runaway by detecting gases/volatile organic compounds (VOCs) released at the initial stages of thermal runaway can be used as a warning to end users. An interdigitated platinum electrode spin-coated with a sub-micron thick layer of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT: PSS) showed sensitivity for two VOCs (ethyl-methyl carbonate and methyl formate) released from Li-ion batteries during thermal runaway, as well as their binary mixtures at elevated temperatures, which were measured using impedance spectroscopy over a frequency range of 1 MHz to 1 Hz. The sensor response was tested at three different high temperatures (40 °C, 55 °C, and 70 °C) for single analytes and binary mixtures of two VOCs at 5 ppm, 15 ppm, and 30 ppm concentrations. Equivalent electrical parameters were derived from impedance data. A machine learning approach was used to classify the sensor’s response. Classification algorithms classify the sensor’s response at elevated temperatures for different analytes with an accuracy greater than 70%. The success of the reported sensors will enhance battery safety via the early detection of thermal runaway.
... In cold climates, however, this technology proves not so effective as resistance heating technology, for it may increase the battery energy consumption and prolong the preheating time. What is more, since the current research on this technology mainly focuses on cooling batteries, little research can be found in the field of battery preheating, and thus, further exploration in this field is needed in the future [41,[67][68][69]. ...
... (2) limited research in the field of battery preheating [16,[67][68][69] Heat pipe preheating (1) excellent heat transfer performance, which can quickly transfer the heat of the heat source to the battery; (2) high safety; (3) low cost; (4) mature technology ...
Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are widely used in electric vehicles, energy storage power stations and other portable devices for their high energy densities, long cycle life and low self-discharge rate. However, they still face several challenges. Low-temperature environments have slowed down the use of LIBs by significantly deteriorating their normal performance. This review aims to resolve this issue by clarifying the phenomenon and reasons of the deterioration of LIBs performance at low temperatures. From the perspective of system management, this review summarizes and analyzes the common performance-improving methods from two aspects including preheating and charging optimization, then depicts the future development of methods in this regard. This review is expected to inspire further studies for the improvement of the LIB performance at low temperatures.
... In the active method, cooling or heating rate can be actively controlled through different strategies, but it consumes a large amount of power. Active cooling methods include air cooling, liquid cooling, and refrigerant cooling, and use fans, pumps, and compressors to control the cooling/heating rate, respectively [19]. Passive cooling methods do not require power and perform without any cooling or heating control. ...
... Outside these ranges, significant performance loss up to hazardous levels has been reported. In a sub-zero atmosphere, a more than 50 percent drop in mileage has been reported [42]. Without sophisticated thermal protection, especially against extreme discharge loads or abusive overcharging, an uncontrollable self-heating phenomenon due to internal chemical reactions, a so-called thermal runaway, could occur, and its impact is disastrous. ...
The use of a polymer composite material in electric vehicles (EVs) has been extensively investigated, especially as a substitute for steel. The key objective of this manuscript is to provide an overview of the existing and emerging technologies related to the application of such a composite, especially for battery pack applications, in which its high strength-to-weight ratio, corrosion resistance, design flexibility, and durability are advantageous compared to any metal in general. This study explores the key considerations in the design and fabrication of composites, including base material selection, structural design optimization, reinforcement material, manufacturing processes, and integration with battery systems. The paper also discusses the performance characteristics of composite battery pack structures, such as mechanical properties, thermal management, safety aspects, and environmental sustainability. This study aims to contribute to sharpening the direction of future research and innovations in the area of composite battery pack technology.
... Fig. 2. illustrates the operating, environmental and standard conditions (in cell, pack and system level) for optimizing the performance of cooling system. Depending on the heat transfer medium (Arora, 2018), BTMS can be classified into four main categories: air cooling (Zhao et al., 2021a), liquid cooling (Malik et al., 2018), phase change material PCM cooling (Pokhrel et al., 2010), and hybrid cooling (Akbarzadeh et al., 2022). On the one hand, the most straightforward design besides power and cost efficiency can be represented by air cooling but its low cooling performance turned the light into the liquid coolant where the thermal performance and battery surface temperature are achieved. ...
... Battery thermal management can be distinguished by the heat transfer coolant medium used in the cooling system (Arora, 2018). Heat transfer coolant medium can be identified as the working fluid inserted into a device or system to prevent the system from overheating, in other words, it can reduce or regulate the temperature of an object. ...
In electric vehicles (EVs), battery thermal management system (BTMS) plays an essential role in keeping the battery working within the optimal operating temperature range and preventing thermal runaway. Many cooling mediums have been conducted into BTMS to transfer, absorb, or dissipate the heat generated from the batteries. Thermal conductivity, heat transfer coefficient, cooling performance, cost, poison, environment, system size, and equipment needed are critical factors in choosing the ideal heat transfer coolant for the BTMS. This review paper concentrates on the novel heat transfer coolant mediums investigated for BTMS and has been rarely documented in the literature. In the scope of this review, traditional BTMS coolant mediums including air, water, phase change material (PCM), and hybrid coolants are considered, and their optimization techniques have been discussed. Additionally, a comprehensive review is provided on novel techniques and novel materials that have the possibility of enhancing the thermal performance of the battery pack on the one hand, as well as the potential of integration into BTMS with higher safety and less (weight, volume, cost, toxicity, and power consumption) compared to the classical heat transfer coolant mediums on the other hand. Evaporative, mist, spray, and nanofluid techniques are found as promising cooling techniques. In terms of environmental, availability, and non-toxicity aspect, jute has the highest possibility of being integrated into BTMS. This study will give the opportunity to see the latest research investigating novel cooling mediums, which will lead to further improvement for BTMS.
... In the worst scenarios, this can lead to thermal runaways, fires, and even explosions [5]. The optimal operating temperature for LiBs is in the range of 15 • C-40 • C, and the temperature gradient in a battery pack should be controlled below 5 • C to ensure the degradation rate uniformity among cells [6]. High-temperature conditions accelerate battery degradation and reduce the lifetime of LiBs [7]. ...
Detailed modeling of battery thermal behaviour has high computational demand due to the presence of multi-scale and multi-physics phenomena. For battery module/pack level simulation, a simple and accurate battery heat generation estimation is urgently required. This paper investigates the optimization of thermal numerical modeling for cylindrical 21,700 lithium-ion batteries with a nominal capacity of 5 Ah. A 3-dimensional battery model was built in the Multiphysics simulation software, COMSOL. The heat source of the model adopts a commonly used heat generation model incorporating irreversible and reversible heat. Correction factors, as a function of the state of charge, were introduced to the calculation of irreversible heat item. The Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) algorithm, written in MATLAB, was coupled with the COMSOL numerical model to minimize the prediction error by varying correction factors. Battery surface temperature data under the continuous discharge tests (0.5C-3.5C) and dynamic loads were experimentally obtained and used to validate the model. The simulation results of the unoptimized model showed a discrepancy of up to 5 • C with the experimental data. After optimization, the prediction error was reduced to less than 0.5 • C on average. The optimized model was applied to predict the thermal behaviour of a battery module (16 aged cells) using oil-based immersion cooling. The pristine battery module with coolant flow velocities of 0.01 m/s was chosen as the baseline. The results indicate that the aged battery modules with internal resistance of 50 mΩ and 75 mΩ require coolant flow velocities of 0.05 m/s and 0.12 m/s, respectively, to achieve the baseline temperature. The study highlights a high-precision and low-computational cost approach for heat generation calculation of lithium-ion batteries is provided, which contributes to the development of battery thermal management systems.
... Magnetic systems have a quasi-indefinite lifespan for commercial applications at 200 and 700 W cooling powers, such as beverage dispensers, medical refrigerators, and wine cellars. 31 F I G U R E 8 Simulation for TESLA Model-S. The distribution of thermal and flow fields at the end of discharge for the battery pack at 298.15 K, 5C and inlet water flow rate of 0.2 m/s: (A) structure of the pack, (B) temperature contours (K), (C) the local temperature (K), (D) streamlines, (E) velocity in the channel (m/s), and (F) pressure in the channel (Pa). ...
... There is no lubrication, no expensive parts, no moving parts, and vibration-free working, all of which make TARs a viable option for battery refrigeration. 31 Figure 14 presents a cut view of a TAR, and all the parts are named. ...
Batteries are essential to mobilization and electrification as they are used in a wide range of applications, from electric vehicles to small mobile devices. All these devices are powered with AC or DC inside their systems, so they require different battery systems depending on their technical requirements. Batteries show unique characteristics depending on their types, and their needs vary based on their performance, ambient conditions, and so forth. One of the main demands for them is thermal stability. For batteries, thermal stability is not just about safety; it's also about economics, the environment, performance, and system stability. This paper has evaluated over 200 papers and harvested their data to build a collective understanding of battery thermal management systems (BTMSs). These studies are specifically designed to solve different problems. This paper has been prepared to show what these systems are, how they work, what they have been designed for, and under what conditions they should be applied. The BTMSs have been evaluated based on their method, method tools, discharge rate, maximum temperature, temperature difference values, and ambient and inlet temperatures. After evaluating over 200 studies, the results indicate that the passive BTMSs are not useful the cases where the temperature reaches higher values suddenly, especially for system systems that require higher discharge rates. On the other hand, active cooling methods do not manage the temperature difference in the battery cells. However, hybrid cooling methods address both cases admirably by compensating for both of their weaknesses and bringing out their advantages. The general optimum temperature for lithium battery batteries is 55°C. Even though there are many other parameters that need to be considered before making a decision for a BTMS design, the best performance for an optimum system seems to be methods 34, 38, and 22 as they are able to provide lower maximum temperature and temperature difference in the cells.
... They emphasized the need for effective battery management systems to dissipate heat and highlighted methods such as phase change materials and liquid cooling as promising solutions for future research. Currently, various cooling types have been employed in BTMS such as air cooling, [22,23] liquid cooling, [18,21,[24][25][26][27][28] refrigerant cooling, [28,29] heat pipes, [30,31] and phase-change material cooling. [17,[32][33][34] Among these methods, the liquid cooling approach is widely used because of its high specific heat capacity, good thermal conductivity, and low cost. ...
To design an effective battery thermal management system, multiple simulations with different levels of modeling, physics, and details are generally needed. However, complex and high‐resolution models are time‐consuming, both in terms of buildup and in computation time. Especially the fast‐moving early‐stage development phases demand all‐in‐one model approaches allowing for quick and efficient concept evaluations. To meet these requirements, herein, a lumped‐mass modeling approach is proposed and a methodology for evaluating various liquid cooling plate topologies is derived. The framework aims to assist the volatile concept phase of battery system development in providing multidimensionally optimized cooling plate topologies. A novel modeling strategy preselects plate parameters using a reduction procedure that couples the transient models’ accuracy with the steady‐state models’ computation time advantages. The results analyze different initial battery geometries, indicating significant deviations in their optimized cooling plate properties. Plate topologies are varied between their main construction design parameters: tube size and tube‐to‐tube distance. In addition to battery's mean temperature, further meaningful parameters like resulting volume flow are evaluated, compared, and discussed for the entire set of battery geometries. Subsequent sensitivity analyses show geometry‐related optimal plate topologies depending on the cooling circuit performance, stressing the necessity for early‐stage cooling plate investigations.
... Among the various approaches for the BTMS that can be found in literature, usually an air-based BTMS is implemented in electric vehicles to preserve the temperature, due to low weight and cost, good performance and scalability [10,11]. Many studies are carried out to evaluate and optimize the air-based cooling BTMSs [12]. ...
Executive Summary To increase safety, performance and lifetime of the battery motive applications, the battery packs must be optimized to meet various application specific requirements. These are typically expressed as volumetric and gravimetric boundaries that should be optimized without compromising the energy and power capabilities as well as the thermal management of the battery cells. Battery pack design hence becomes a challenging task to achieve energy and cost-efficiency throughout vehicle's lifetime. This time consuming process that typically is addressed with trial-error and user-based experienced cannot converge to global optimal solutions while rarely exploring the whole design space. In this study, we validate a novel methodology that automatizes the battery pack thermo-mechanical design based on a three-dimensional (3D) co-design framework for Lithium-ion battery modules. Accounting an air-cooled study case, the proposed framework performs more than 250 design evaluations in relative short time for the whole available design space, ensuring the global optimal configuration of the battery module, with respect to 3 thermal and 1 mechanical constraints. As a result, the optimal battery module that is derived, is now built and experimentally tested to validate its performance with both static, pulse and dynamic loading profiles.
