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Choropleth map of Population density, Congo River and Wild Polio virus cases. KML layers resulted in high quality visual display and can improve our understanding of the spatiotemporal relationships between the entities involved in the polio outbreak. Colours and values for population density classes were chosen by the author and may not conform to existing standards. Markers are custom Portable Network Graphics (PNG) images designed with Macromedia Fireworks™. Disclaimer: The map is intended solely to demonstrate the use of Google Earth™ in public health mapping and has no other intentions whatsoever. Refer to authoritative sources for disease and population information about the Democratic Republic of Congo.
Source publication
The use of GIS in public health is growing, a consequence of a rapidly evolving technology and increasing accessibility to a wider audience. Google Earth (GE) is becoming an important mapping infrastructure for public health. However, generating traditional public health maps for GE is still beyond the reach of most public health professionals. In...
Citations
... As found in Haut Lomami, geospatial data enabled the visualization and analysis of health data in spatial contexts, offering insights into the geographical distribution of the population, health area boundaries, healthcare facilities and immunization coverage. In line with our results, it has been largely documented that Geospatial Information Systems (GIS) and other geospatial technologies facilitate targeted interventions, allowing health authorities to optimize and enhance the precision of resource allocation in resource-constrained settings and identified underserved areas to allocate resources efficiently in specific geographic areas [10][11][12][13][14][15]. ...
Background
The National Expanded Program on Immunization in the Democratic Republic of the Congo implemented a program in 9 Provinces to generate georeferenced immunization microplans to strengthen the planning and implementation of vaccination services. The intervention aimed to improve identification and immunization of zero-dose children and overall immunization coverage.
Methods
This study applies a mixed-methods design including survey tools, in-depth interviews and direct observation to document the uptake, use, and acceptance of the immunization microplans developed with geospatial data in two intervention provinces and one control province from February to June 2023. A total of 113 health facilities in 98 Health Areas in 15 Health Zones in the three provinces were included in the study sample. Select providers received training on gender-intentional approaches for the collection and use of geospatial data which was evaluated through a targeted qualitative study. A secondary analysis of immunization coverage survey data (2020–2022) was conducted to assess the associated effects on immunization coverage, especially changes in rates of zero dose children, defined as those aged 12–23 months who have not received a single dose of Pentavalent vaccine.
Results
This research study shows that georeferenced microplans are well received, utilized, and led to changes in routine immunization service planning and delivery. In addition, the gender intervention is perceived to have led to changes in the approaches taken to overcome sociocultural gender norms and engage communities to reach as many children as possible, leveraging the ability of women to engage more effectively to support vaccination services. The quantitative analyses showed that georeferenced microplans may have contributed to a dramatic and sustained trend of high immunization coverage in the intervention site of Haut-Lomami, which saw dramatic improvement in coverage for 3 antigens and little change in Pentavalent drop-out rate over three years of implementation.
Conclusion
The overall study identified positive contributions of the georeferenced data in the planning and delivery of routine immunization services. It is recommended to conduct further analyses in Kasai in 2024 and 2025 to evaluate the longer-term effects of the gender intervention on immunization coverage and equity outcomes.
Trial registration
The study was registered and given BMC Central International Standard. Randomised Controlled Trial Number ISRCTN65876428 on March 11, 2021.
... These technologies allow for real-time data collection and analysis, which is vital for tracking the movement of viruses and their vectors across different geographies [128]. Furthermore, geographic information systems (GIS) and remote sensing technologies provide detailed insights into the environmental factors that influence the spread of VHFs [129]. Together with advanced portable technologies, such as the MinION device for real-time genomic sequencing, surveillance and control approaches for VHFs can be enhanced [130], aiding the prediction and prevention of outbreaks. ...
Viral haemorrhagic fevers encompass a diverse group of severe, often life-threatening illnesses caused by viruses from multiple families, including Arenaviridae, Filoviridae, Flaviviridae, Hantaviridae, Nairoviridae, Peribunyaviridae, and Phenuiviridae. Characterised by fever and haemorrhagic symptoms, these diseases challenge public health systems by overwhelming healthcare facilities, complicating diagnostic processes, and requiring extensive resources for containment and treatment, especially in resource-limited settings. This discussion explores the intricate relationships between VHFs and their transmission vectors—both animal and arthropod—and examines the impact of ecological and geographic factors on disease spread. The primary transmission of VHFs typically occurs through direct contact with infected animals or via bites from haematophagous arthropods, facilitating zoonotic and, at times, human-to-human transmission. With an emphasis on the role of diverse wildlife, domesticated animals, and vectors such as mosquitoes and ticks in the epidemiology of VHFs, there is a recognised need for robust surveillance and strategic public health responses to manage outbreaks. This review discusses the necessity of interdisciplinary approaches that integrate virology, ecology, and public health to enhance diagnostic capabilities, develop vaccines and antivirals, and improve outbreak interventions. Exploring the ecological and biological dynamics of VHFs will help bolster a deeper understanding of these emerging viruses and underpin preparation for future outbreaks. The importance of enhanced global cooperation, continuous research, and collaboration to mitigate the public health threats posed by these complex infections is a central theme, serving as a foundational strategy to reinforce worldwide preparedness and response efforts. Future directions include addressing gaps in vaccine development and tailoring public health strategies to the unique challenges of managing VHFs, such as the rapid mutation rates of viruses, the need for cold chain logistics for vaccine distribution, and socio-economic barriers to healthcare access, in order to ensure readiness for and effective response to emerging threats worldwide.
... Moreover, AI-driven tools have revolutionized poliovirus surveillance in Africa and significantly improved the detection and reporting of acute flaccid paralysis cases. Geographic information systems combined with AI algorithms have improved real-time mapping and analysis of polio cases, vaccination coverage, and population movements, optimizing resource allocation for vaccination campaigns (Shuaib et al., 2018;Kamadjeu, 2009;Dougherty et al., 2019;Hamisu et al., 2022). These systems contribute to the improvement of polio surveillance and eradication efforts. ...
... (AFP) cases (Shuaib et al., 2018) ( §2.2.5). Geographic information systems (GIS) combined with AI algorithms further improve real-time mapping and analysis of polio cases, vaccination coverage, and population movements, optimizing resource allocation for vaccination campaigns (Kamadjeu, 2009;Dougherty et al., 2019). ...
... Geographic information systems (GIS) and spatial analysis are also utilized to map and visualize polio cases, vaccination coverage, and population movements in real-time. These technologies, integrated with AI algorithms, enable researchers to identify high-risk areas, predict potential outbreaks, and optimize resource allocation for vaccination campaigns (Kamadjeu, 2009;Dougherty et al., 2019;Oteri et al., 2021;Gammino et al., 2014;Thompson and Kalkowska, 2020). For example, environmental surveillance has benefited from AI through the use of Digital Elevation Modeling and machine learning techniques to improve poliovirus detection in sewage and wastewater samples. ...
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is revolutionizing various fields, including public health surveillance. In Africa, where health systems frequently encounter challenges such as limited resources, inadequate infrastructure, failed health information systems and a shortage of skilled health professionals, AI offers a transformative opportunity. This paper investigates the applications of AI in public health surveillance across the continent, presenting successful case studies and examining the benefits, opportunities, and challenges of implementing AI technologies in African healthcare settings. Our paper highlights AI's potential to enhance disease monitoring and health outcomes, and support effective public health interventions. The findings presented in the paper demonstrate that AI can significantly improve the accuracy and timeliness of disease detection and prediction, optimize resource allocation, and facilitate targeted public health strategies. Additionally, our paper identified key barriers to the widespread adoption of AI in African public health systems and proposed actionable recommendations to overcome these challenges.
... However, as national NTD programs approach LF elimination targets and identify 119 areas of LF foci of transmission that appear to be particularly intractable, new tools and strategies are 120 needed. Increasingly, digital tools are being used during microplanning for health program planning and 121 implementation [25,29] as they have been shown to be a cost-effective strategy [25,30] that can 122 increase program coverage [23,31], identify mobile and displaced populations [21,29,31], and promote 123 an efficient allocation of resources [32]. This article is a US Government work. ...
Background
Achieving adequate mass drug administration (MDA) coverage for lymphatic filariasis is challenging. We sought to improve stakeholder engagement in MDA planning and improve subsequent MDA coverage through a series of microplanning workshops.
Methodology/Principal Findings
Prior to the 2018 MDA, Haiti’s Ministry of Public Health and Population (MSPP) and partners conducted 10 stakeholder microplanning workshops in metropolitan Port-au-Prince. The objectives of the workshops were to identify and address gaps in geographic coverage of supervision areas (SAs); review past MDA performance and propose strategies to improve access to MDA; and review roles and responsibilities of MDA personnel, through increased stakeholder engagement. Retrospective pre-testing was used to assess the effectiveness of the workshops. Participants used a 5-point scale to rank their understanding of past performance, SA boundaries, roles and responsibilities, and their perceived engagement by MSPP. Participants simultaneously ranked their previous year’s attitudes and their attitudes following the 2-day microplanning workshop. Changes in pre- and post-scores were analyzed using Wilcoxon-signed rank tests. A total of 356 stakeholders across five communes participated in the workshops. Participants conducted various planning activities including revising SA boundaries to ensure full geographic reach of MDA, proposing or validating social mobilization strategies, and proposing other MDA improvements. Compared with previous year rankings, the workshops increased participant understanding of past performance by 1.34 points (standard deviation [SD]=1.05, p<0.001); SA boundaries by 1.14 points (SD=1.30; p<0.001); their roles and responsibilities by 0.71 points (SD=0.95, p-<0.001); and sense of engagement by 1.03 points (SD=1.08, p<0.001). Additionally, drug coverage increased in all five communes during the 2018 MDA.
Conclusions/Significance
Participatory stakeholder workshops during MDA planning can increase self-reported engagement of key personnel and may improve personnel performance and contribute to achievement of drug coverage targets. Microplanning success was supported by MDA results, with all communes achieving preset MDA coverage targets.
... As found in Haut Lomami, geospatial data enabled the visualization and analysis of health data in spatial contexts, offering insights into the geographical distribution of the population, health area boundaries, healthcare facilities and immunization coverage. In line with our results, it has been largely documented that Geospatial Information Systems (GIS) and other geospatial technologies facilitate targeted interventions, allowing health authorities to optimize and enhance the precision of resource allocation in resource-constrained settings and identi ed underserved areas to allocate resources e ciently in speci c geographic areas [9][10][11][12][13][14]. ...
Background
The National Expanded Program on Immunization in the Democratic Republic of the Congo started using geospatial data at scale in 8 Provinces to strengthen the planning and implementation of vaccination services with a focus on the identification and immunization of zero-dose children, children who have not received the first dose of diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis containing vaccine (DTP1).
Methods
The study used a mixed-methods research design including survey tools, in-depth interviews and direct observation to document the uptake, use, and perceived impact of georeferenced immunization microplans in the intervention provinces of Haut-Lomami and Kasai and in the control province of Kasai Central. A total of 113 health facilities in 98 Health Areas in 15 Health Zones in the three provinces were included in the study sample. A gender intervention in select Health Zones and Health Areas in Kasai Province was also evaluated through a targeted qualitative study. A secondary analysis of immunization coverage survey data was conducted to assess the associated effects on immunization coverage, especially for rates of zero-dose children.
Results
This research study shows that georeferenced microplans are well received, utilized, and led to changes in routine immunization service planning and delivery with perceived improvements in identification and reaching zero-dose children. In addition, the gender intervention is perceived to have led to a significant change in the approaches taken to overcome sociocultural gender norms and engage communities to reach as many children as possible, leveraging the ability of women to engage more effectively to support vaccination services. The quantitative analyses showed that georeferenced microplans may have contributed to a dramatic and sustained trend towards high immunization coverage in the intervention site of Haut Lomami, which rose dramatically from 8.9% in 2020 to 76.8% in 2021 and to 92% in 2022 for Pentavalent 3 antigen, while the DPT1-DPT3 drop-out rate changed little from 1% in 2020 to 1.7% in 2021 and 1.6% in 2022 after three years of implementation.
Conclusion
The overall study identified positive contributions of the georeferenced data in the planning and delivery of routine immunization services. It is recommended to conduct further analyses in Kasai in 2024 and 2025 to evaluate the effects of the gender intervention on immunization coverage and equity outcomes.
... GEPro™ is a layer viewer that could not be considered an authentic GIS, because some spatial analysis tools are not available, neither layer editions nor access to attribute tables. But it is becoming the key for the public health map of events [22]. Besides that, it offers high-quality satellite imagery and powerful search tools, for commercial infrastructure, public infrastructure, and places from local territorial division. ...
When the epidemiologists need to analyze the distribution of cases in a study or the outbreak trend of cases over time, usually they use graphics for representing the magnitude over time (by incidence and prevalence), tables for describing the variables of the affected people (by race, age, sex, weight, and social condition), and maps describing the spread of places and distribution over time. The technological advances gives most people access to latitude and longitude in smartphones and easy access to a GIS-like free software such as Google Earth™ (GE), an intuitive and effective program for a fast map of the case addresses geocoded, an easy way to display layers imported from formats like Shapefiles extension, and showing over those layers Excel tables with the patient variables and geocoded data from the sheet. Besides, it gives the availability of saving the spatial data with the variables, in files that can be mailed and displayed in smartphones and PCs with Google Earth installed and with outcomes that have a format compatible to GIS classic software.
... Although telemedicine did not emerge until the 1960s, it has gained worldwide prominence because of the disruption caused by COVID-19 and the resulting social isolation measures. In addition to telemonitoring, telemedicine has been used previously as an immunization strategy in the mapping, distribution, and monitoring of vaccine doses [35,36]. Immunization information systems (IIS) are public health tools that store data on vaccination coverage at a given location. ...
... In the selected articles, IIS were used to collect immunization data from individuals and contacts and to send reminders. The use of this technology can track and guide health managers on immunization strategies [19][20][21][22][23]36]. Studies [19,24,30,32] show that the use of technology and the collection of information and immunizations have a positive impact and that transmitting reminders and sending messages can provide additional awareness. ...
... Therefore, more studies should be conducted that take into account the ease of access to information that globalization and technological advances have brought in recent years. Tracking risk groups, the population to be immunized and the effectiveness of vaccine applications can also rely on technologies that use global positioning systems, as in the studies of [28,33,36]. The tools helped health professionals and provided feedback to managers on the number of hospital admissions and contamination of health service users following vaccination [28,33]. ...
Background
The impact of the pandemic caused by the coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2), causing the disease COVID-19, has brought losses to the world in terms of deaths, economic and health problems. The expected return of the public to activities adapted to the new health situation led to discussions about the use of vaccination and its effects. However, the demand for proof of vaccination showed how inconsistent, unregistered, and uncontrolled this health process is with current technologies. Despite the proven effectiveness of vaccines in reducing infection rates, mortality, and morbidity, there are still doubts about their use in preventing certain infections and injuries, as well as the use of digital medical records for identification at public events and disease prevention. Therefore, this review aims to analyze the use of digital immunization cards in disease prevention in general.
Methods
A systematic review of Science, PubMed/MEDLINE, LILACS /BSV, CINALH, and IEEE and Xplore was performed using PRISMA guidelines. The authors summarized the studies conducted over the last decade on the impacts of prophylaxis by control through immunization cards. Studies were selected using the following terms: Vaccination; Mobile Applications; Health Smarts Cards; Immunization Programs; Vaccination Coverage. For data analysis, we used Mendeley, Excel, RStudio, and Bibliometrix software among others.
Results
A total of 1828 publications were found. After applying eligibility criteria (Articles published in Portuguese, Spanish or English in the last 10 years). Studies that only dealt with paper or physical records were excluded, as well as studies that were not linked to their country’s health Department, as a possibility of bias exists with these types of information). After removing duplicates and applying filters 1 and 2, we included 18 studies in this review. This resulted in 18 papers that met our priori inclusion criteria; it was found that the most relevant sources were from the databases of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
Conclusions
Considering the selected studies, we found that scientific evidence and epidemiological surveillance are essential tools to characterize the efficiency and effectiveness of immunization passport protection intervention and to ethically justify them. Technological development of digital vaccine passports can assist in vaccination programs and positively impact disease prophylaxis.
... Maps are powerful tools for public health decision-makers to better understand the relationship between the location of populations and health system resources, indicators or predictors of health status, and their patterns over space and time. The Immunization programs in low-and middle-income countries are beginning to harness digital maps and geospatial data to display and analyze complex information for program improvements [1][2][3][4][5][6]. The effective use of geospatial data can show program managers which locations have not received adequate immunization services, provide more accurate denominators, and inform what vaccination delivery strategies should be used to optimize coverage and equity. ...
... They are then used to plan and execute realistic action plans that include outreach activities. Microplans developed with geospatial technologies and data are a cost-effective way to identify settlements missed with traditional microplanning activities that rely on hand-drawn paper maps [2,5,6,16]. With more accurate and reliable information about the locations, characteristics, and number of settlements within their catchment area, managers can plan and prioritize their activities to vaccinate more children and monitor progress both from the local and central levels. ...
The effective use of geospatial data and technologies to collect, manage, analyze, model, and visualize geographic data has great potential to improve data-driven decision-making for immunization programs. This article presents a theory of change for the use of geospatial technologies for immunization programming-a framework to illustrate the ways in which geospatial data and technologies can contribute to improved immunization outcomes and have a positive impact on childhood immunization coverage rates in low- and middle-income countries. The theory of change is the result of a review of the state of the evidence and literature; consultation with implementers, donors, and immunization and geospatial technology experts; and a review of country-level implementation experiences. The framework illustrates how the effective use of geospatial data and technologies can help immunization programs realize improvements in the number of children immunized by producing reliable estimates of target populations, identifying chronically missed settlements and locations with the highest number of zero-dose and under-immunized children, and guiding immunization managers with solutions to optimize resource distribution and location of health services. Through these direct effects on service delivery, geospatial data and technologies can contribute to the strengthening of the overall health system with equity in immunization coverage. Recent implementation of integrated geospatial data and technologies for the immunization program in Myanmar demonstrate the process that countries may experience on the path to achieving lasting systematic improvements. The theory of change presented here may serve as a guide for country program managers, implementers, donors, and other stakeholders to better understand how geospatial tools can support immunization programs and facilitate integrated service planning and equitable delivery through the unifying role of geography and geospatial data.
... This has important consequences for planning immunization campaigns and estimating vaccination coverage for EI. Acquiring precise population estimates translates into improved vaccine delivery programs once areas become accessible and more accurate evaluations on the coverage of the campaign [33]. This analysis was able to produce rough population estimates for the study area derived from each feature generation method, based on structure to population ratio assumptions supplied by country level partners. ...
Background
Social instability and logistical factors like the displacement of vulnerable populations, the difficulty of accessing these populations, and the lack of geographic information for hard-to-reach areas continue to serve as barriers to global essential immunizations (EI). Microplanning, a population-based, healthcare intervention planning method has begun to leverage geographic information system (GIS) technology and geospatial methods to improve the remote identification and mapping of vulnerable populations to ensure inclusion in outreach and immunization services, when feasible. We compare two methods of accomplishing a remote inventory of building locations to assess their accuracy and similarity to currently employed microplan line-lists in the study area.
Methods
The outputs of a crowd-sourced digitization effort, or mapathon, were compared to those of a machine-learning algorithm for digitization, referred to as automatic feature extraction (AFE). The following accuracy assessments were employed to determine the performance of each feature generation method: (1) an agreement analysis of the two methods assessed the occurrence of matches across the two outputs, where agreements were labeled as “befriended” and disagreements as “lonely”; (2) true and false positive percentages of each method were calculated in comparison to satellite imagery; (3) counts of features generated from both the mapathon and AFE were statistically compared to the number of features listed in the microplan line-list for the study area; and (4) population estimates for both feature generation method were determined for every structure identified assuming a total of three households per compound, with each household averaging two adults and 5 children.
Results
The mapathon and AFE outputs detected 92,713 and 53,150 features, respectively. A higher proportion (30%) of AFE features were befriended compared with befriended mapathon points (28%). The AFE had a higher true positive rate (90.5%) of identifying structures than the mapathon (84.5%). The difference in the average number of features identified per area between the microplan and mapathon points was larger (t = 3.56) than the microplan and AFE (t = − 2.09) (alpha = 0.05).
Conclusions
Our findings indicate AFE outputs had higher agreement (i.e., befriended), slightly higher likelihood of correctly identifying a structure, and were more similar to the local microplan line-lists than the mapathon outputs. These findings suggest AFE may be more accurate for identifying structures in high-resolution satellite imagery than mapathons. However, they both had their advantages and the ideal method would utilize both methods in tandem.
... Viable spatial patterns of land-use and land cover of the Ikpoba riparian area were first visualized within the google earth database before acquisition using the snapshot tool of Google earth 7.1 software. The images offered by the software originate from both satellites and aerial photography with a repeatability update ranging from 6 months to 5 years [32]. This repetitive frequency of updating images over time makes them an effective and reliable alternative to non-updated hardcopies of maps and surveys available at the local and state government repositories. ...
The unregulated use of watersheds for agriculture negatively impacts the quality of river basins. In particular, the reduced quality of surface-waters, have been attributed to absence or poorly-decided riparian-buffer specifications in environmental laws. To demonstrate suitable buffer-width for protection of surface water, sediment and benthic fish populations, five riparian areas with different vegetation richness and buffer-width were selected within an organochlorine pesticide (OCP)-impacted watershed using the Normalized Differential Vegetation Index (NDVI) and multiple buffer analysis respectively. Mean OCP levels in surface water, sediment and fish sampled at each riparian stations showed site-specific differences with markedly higher levels of α-BHC, β-BHC, δ-BHC, p,p′-DDD and total pesticide residues at stations with least riparian cover. The principal component analysis further revealed more OCPs associating with sediment and fish from stations having smaller buffer-width and sparse riparian vegetation. Stations with wider buffer-width of at least 120 m provided greater protection to adjacent surface water and benthic fish populations. While this study recommends riparian buffer-widths for a typical tropical environment, further research which assesses other contaminant types in aquatic matrices adjacent to different riparian environments would be valuable and informative for regulatory guidance and strategic protection of ecosystem services.
