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Abstract Working memory capacity is known to predict the performance of novices and experts on a variety of tasks found in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics). A common feature of STEM tasks is that they require the problem solver to encode and transform complex spatial information depicted in disciplinary representations that...
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... of the stimuli as separate memory representations. Rather, they encode the components and the relationships between the components as a single representation ( Scolari et al., 2008) through a process referred to as "chunking" information (Miller, 1956). This feat is illustrated with an example from chess. The layout of the chess pieces in Fig. 1 correspond to a "bishop and knight mate" checkmate pattern. While a chess novice might encode the image as four separate representations that contain identity and location features (Bf6, Kg6, Nh6, and Kh8), the expert encodes a single informational "chunk" (bishopand-knight-mate) that contains the identity and relative location ...
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... < .001). Participants were also more accurate at identifying targets when the chunk was changed than they were when the chunk was maintained (F (1,24) = 21.54, p < .001). ...
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... accuracy was analyzed via a 2 (dimensionality: 2D, 3D) × 3 (change type: identical, chunk-changed, chunkmaintained) × 2 (redundancy: present, absent) repeated measures ANCOVA, controlling for the spatial skills measures. Neither the paper folding test (F (1, 77) = 1.09, p = 0.30) nor the cube comparison test (F (1,77) = .36, p = .55) ...
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... SD = 0.02; F (1,77) = 11.87, p = 0.001) or chunk-maintained targets (M = 0.53, SD = 0.02; F (1,77) = 15.55, p < .001). Participants were also more accurate at identifying targets when the chunk was changed than they were when the chunk was maintained (F (1,77) = 125.98, p < .001). We observed no effects of the various factors and response time (Fig. 3, all F < ...
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Given a set of simple objects, visual working memory capacity drops from 3 to 4 units down to only 1 to 2 units when the display rotates. But real-world STEM experts somehow overcome these limits. Here, we study a potential domain-general mechanism that might help experts exceed these limits: compressing information based on redundant visual featur...
Citations
... This might be due to specific task affordances, particularly in the skill of translation, which already includes references to spatiality. Previous studies have already indicated this, especially when spatial requirements are considered when working on chemistry tasks (Rau, 2017c;Stieff et al., 2020). If, for example, 2-D dash-wedge diagrams must be converted into 3-D mental representations and used to work on problems (in the sense of translation), this poses major challenges for many learners (Stieff et al., 2018). ...
... As mentioned, spatial cognition is an essential ability students have to apply when working with representations in chemistry (Rau, 2017c;Stieff et al., 2020). Although there is strong evidence that spatial ability is an important predictor for achievement in chemistry (Buckley et al., 2018;Carter et al., 1987;Stieff & Uttal, 2015;Uttal et al., 2013;Yang et al., 2020) and that the spatial factor of 3-D mental rotation seems to play a key role in that context, we still do not know which of the various further spatial factors are essential when working with chemical representations and for the different lower-level skills. ...
In chemistry, representational competence is crucial for effective problem-solving and learning. However, the relationship between representational competence and chemical content knowledge, continues to be a matter of discussion. To investigate the connection between representational competence and chemical content knowledge, we developed a new assessment tool known as the Chemical Representation Inventory: Translation, Interpretation, Construction (CRI:TIC), utilizing three lower-level representational skills identified by Kozma and Russell (1997, 2005). This article presents the evaluation of the CRI:TIC and discusses its implications for research in chemistry education and for educators. The instrument was administered to 185 first-year students in a preparatory university chemistry course. Utilizing multidimensional Rasch analysis, we examined the dimensionality of the lower-level representational skills. Based on the results, we suggest that, from a psychometric perspective, lower-level skills should be regarded as a unified construct. Nonetheless, from an educational standpoint, maintaining a conceptual distinction between these skills remains relevant. Further analysis linking the CRI:TIC data to results from a chemical content knowledge assessment indicates that representational competence and content knowledge should be treated as distinct constructs. Although we cannot draw causal conclusions regarding the relationship between these two constructs, our findings underscore the importance of developing students’ representational skills.
... This advantage is attributed to their ability to integrate and process information more fluidly, a skill honed through extensive experience and practice. The influence of experience on cognitive efficiency is further underscored by Stieff et al. [10], who show that experts deploy sophisticated cognitive strategies, such as chunking and anticipation, more adeptly than novices. ...
... The studies also reveal significant differences between novice and expert interpreters. Stieff et al. [10] show that experts exhibit superior cognitive processing capabilities compared to novices. This expertise translates into better management of working memory, more effective use of cognitive strategies, and higher accuracy. ...
... Emphasis on real-time practice and feedback will allow trainees to refine their multitasking abilities and become more adept at handling the complexities of simultaneous interpreting. The research by Stieff et al. [10] shows that expert interpreters exhibit superior cognitive processing skills compared to novices. Training programs should aim to bridge this expertise gap by providing advanced cognitive training and experience. ...
Simultaneous interpreting is an intricate and demanding task that requires real-time translation between languages. This complex process involves the interpreter listening to the source language, processing the information, and simultaneously delivering it in the target language. Such a task places considerable demands on cognitive resources, especially working memory, which is crucial for retaining and manipulating information over short periods. This paper delves into the impact of variations in working memory capacity on interpreting accuracy, with particular attention to the cognitive challenges posed by multitasking and managing cognitive load. By synthesizing existing research, the paper explores the connection between working memory capacity and interpreting performance, revealing that interpreters with higher working memory capacity are generally more accurate in their translations. Moreover, the review highlights cognitive strategies like chunking—breaking information into manageable units—and anticipation, which enable interpreters to cope with the substantial cognitive load inherent in simultaneous interpreting. These findings emphasize the vital role of working memory in the interpreting process and suggest that focused training on enhancing cognitive skills could lead to significant improvements in accuracy and efficiency, particularly in high-stakes environments where precision is critical.
... Utilizing adjustable components-such as isotype visualizations [36] or LEGO-like building blocks [30]-enables tailored visualizations, enhancing clarity and flexibility. Future research should explore how to utilize visual chunking strategies (i.e., grouping related data into distinct sections) [97] and develop modular visualizations that can be adjusted and configured to better meet the needs of diverse audiences. Additionally, data authoring tools should offer customizable features and templates to encourage creativity and self-expression, allowing individuals to modify design elements, layouts, and interactive components to reflect their unique styles and preferences. ...
Individuals with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (IDD) have unique needs and challenges when working with data. While visualization aims to make data more accessible to a broad audience, our understanding of how to design cognitively accessible visualizations remains limited. In this study, we engaged 20 participants with IDD as co-designers to explore how they approach and visualize data. Our preliminary investigation paired four participants as data pen-pals in a six-week online asynchronous participatory design workshop. In response to the observed conceptual, technological, and emotional struggles with data, we subsequently organized a two-day in-person co-design workshop with 16 participants to further understand relevant visualization authoring and sensemaking strategies. Reflecting on how participants engaged with and represented data, we propose two strategies for cognitively accessible data visualizations: transforming numbers into narratives and blending data design with everyday aesthetics. Our findings emphasize the importance of involving individuals with IDD in the design process, demonstrating their capacity for data analysis and expression, and underscoring the need for a narrative and tangible approach to accessible data visualization.
... They reached an accurate solution and evaluated their solutions, including developing different strategies and implementing one or two of those strategies. These stages are associated with what other studies state (See Chen & Kalyuga, 2020;Donovan et al., 1999;Lane, 2012;Stieff et al., 2020). Learners in NS try to solve problems without making sense of them and tend to answer even if they are insolvable (Donovan et al., 1999). ...
... Whether the proposed solution is correct or the developed strategy is proper is judged in the reflection (Lane, 2012;Lodge et al., 2018). The problem situation, including a large amount of complex spatial information, is easily understood, and the correct solution is reached by organising and applying procedures in the ES (See Donovan et al., 1999;Stieff et al., 2020). ...
This study explores how pre-service mathematics teachers’ spatial visualisation skills evolved during a Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) based education. The study used the qualitative theory-testing case study method, which guided the identification of participants, the design of technology-supported education, and the data collection and analysis process. The four participants meeting specific criteria were selected as the study sample. A CLT-based education equipped with technology was provided to help participants overcome difficulties in spatial visualisation problems, improve their existing schemas, and build higher-order schemas. Various teaching approaches (e.g., worked examples) were applied to optimise participants’ learning in CLT-based education. The study data (e.g., transcripts of interviews) were analysed using the pattern-matching technique, in which the observed patterns were compared with the derived hypotheses from the theoretic models regarding the problem-solving process and novice-expert schemas. The study achieved remarkable results: In CLT-based education, where teaching approaches have an important role, the improvement in their spatial visualisation skills happened as the participants overcame their challenges in problem-solving steps throughout their cyclic problem-solving processes and gained more knowledge and skills. The participants’ acquisition of expertise in spatial visualisation skills went through various developmental stages. They strengthened their initial spatial problem-solving schemas by completing the deficiencies in their prior knowledge. They gained practicality in same-category tasks and constructed higher-order problem-solving schemas when dealing with high-category tasks by activating their assimilation and adaptation processes. Keywords: Cognitive Load Theory, the development of spatial visualisation skills, theory-testing method, acquiring an expert spatial problem-solving schema
... Meliputi kemampuan untuk merancang dan membangun objek dalam bentuk 3 dimensi, memahami hubungan spasial antara objek, dan menggunakan alat dan teknologi untuk memanipulasi dan memvisualisasikan objek yang ada dalam bentuk 3 dimensi (Anggara et al., 2022). Berpikir spasial membantu siswa merekonstruksi dan memahami objek dan ruang dalam bentuk 3 dimensi, sehingga mereka lebih mudah berinteraksi dan berkomunikasi dengan objek dan ruang tersebut (Muntarwikhi et al., 2022 (Stieff et al., 2020). ...
... Dalam pembelajaran sains, kemampuan berpikir spasial dapat membentuk siswa dalam memahami konsep yang berhubungan dengan objek dan ruang dalam bentuk tiga dimensi, seperti struktur molekul atau organisme, sedangkan kemampuan aplikasi membantu siswa dalam mengaplikasikan konsep dan prinsip sains ke dalam situasi nyata, seperti dalam memecahkan masalah lingkungan atau medis (Stieff et al., 2020). Dalam kesimpulannya, berpikir spasial dan kemampuan aplikasi saling melengkapi dalam mengaplikasikan konsep dan prinsip ke dalam situasi kehidupan sehari-hari. ...
... Dalam hubungannya, berpikir secara spasial dan kemampuan analisis saling berhubungan. Dalam memecahkan masalah yang kompleks, siswa dapat memanfaatkan kemampuan ini untuk mengintegrasikan dan memanipulasi masalah dalam bentuk tiga dimensi, kemudian menggunakan kemampuan analisis dalam menyelesaikan permasalahan menjadi bagian terkecil dan menganalisis setiap bagian untuk mencari solusi yang tepat (Ng & Chan, 2019;Stieff et al., 2020). Dalam kesimpulannya, kemampuan berpikir spasial dan kemampuan analisis saling melengkapi satu sama lain dan sangat penting dalam pembelajaran, terutama dalam memecahkan masalah yang kompleks (Umam & Astawa, 2018 Berdasarkan pada Gambar 8 diketahui rata-rata dari masing-masing indikator berpikir spasial yang diukur. ...
Berpikir spasial dibutuhkan oleh siswa dalam memahami pembelajaran geografi di SMA. Pemetaan kemampuan berpikir spasial oleh guru diawal pembelajaran dapat memudahkan guru dalam menyusun modul ajar sesuai dengan kurikulum merdeka. Pada artikel ini, tujuan penelitian ini melakukan identifikasi kemampuan berpikir spasial siswa pada materi atmosfer di SMA. Populasi penelitian berjumlah 324 siswa. Pengambilan data dilakukan dengan metode survei terhadap siswa kelas X (Fase E) SMAN 15 Padang. Instrumen berpikir spasial terdiri dari indikator komprehensif, representasi, skala, interaksi spasial, aplikasi dan analisis. Instrumen penelitian telah divalidasi dengan nilai cronbach alfa < 0.709. Responden dalam penelitian ini sebanyak 66 siswa fase E. Hasil penelitian membuktikan rata-rata kemampuan berpikir spasial pada materi atmosfer siswa SMAN 15 Padang berada pada tingkatan sedang dengan nilai sebesar 50,3%. Penilaian secara detail setiap indikator berpikir spasial dijelaskan dalam artikel ini. Pemetaan lebih awal kemampuan berpikir spasial siswa SMA dibutuhkan dalam memudahkan proses pembelajaran geografi sesuai dengan kemampuan siswa masing-masing.
... Hand gestures help convey relational, spatial and embodied concepts and the unconscious nature in which gestures often accompany speech has seen this particular mode receiving greater attention in recent STEM education studies ( Despite insightful formative studies, the unique ways in which STEM learners problem solve and communicate their visuospatial understanding by utilising the conceptual resources and multiple modalities available to them is still not well understood and leaves much to be investigated, particularly in the field of chemistry. Understanding how visuospatial thinking can enable chemistry learners to construct their subject knowledge through varied reasoning modes and problemsolving strategies is key to developing new and improved learning support materials, teaching approaches, digital teaching tools, assessment criteria and ultimately widening access to learning in chemistry and related STEM disciplines (Stieff et al., 2020;Kiernan et al., 2021). This study builds upon prior research by Kiernan et al., 2021, examining A-grade students' use of diagrammatic reasoning when learning visuospatial concepts and that of Hammer (2000), whose resources-based work defined the idea of conceptual resources for physics learning. ...
Central to conceptual understanding of STEM disciplines is visuospatial processing. Despite its acknowledged role in assuring learners’ success, less is known about the underlying reasoning students must employ when solving...
... Unstructured problems, as found in inquiry and engineering design activities, provide excellent opportunities for students to engage in creative processing and express their creativity through the creation of products. These types of problems are typically challenging, but the use of appropriate questioning has been proven to aid students in problemsolving (Shin et al., 2021;Stieff et al., 2020). ...
Creativity is recognized as a crucial 21st-century skill. Creativity plays a significant role in societal life, bringing forth something that did not exist before, whether it be in the form of products, processes, or ideas. Creativity is vital for navigating the limitations we encounter, solving problems across various aspects of life, and generating new opportunities or works to address a range of issues, including in the realm of education. Creative thinking is the process that yields creativity. The better someone is at creative thinking, the more creative they are as individuals. In other words, that person possesses high creativity. Involving students in designing their own experimental procedures will encourage their scientific creativity. Project-based learning requires students to conduct experiments to solve problems and complete given projects. Creative thinking from students is essential in these project endeavors. Hence, in this article, the researchers attempt to unearth the advantages inherent in project-based learning for bolstering students' creative thinking skills in science education
... Second, spatial strategies are applied by learners when solving STEM problems. For example, in chemistry learning, Stieff et al. (2020) found that novice chemistry students automatically recruit spatial ability strategically to process the embedded information in those chemistry representations, regardless of their insufficient domain knowledge of chemistry. Similar examples could also be found in technology education. ...
Spatial ability has been shown to have a causal relationship with students' success in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) subjects. While an abundance of research has investigated how spatial ability development is and could be integrated to science, engineering, and mathematics curricula, little attempt has been made to date to situate where spatial ability manifests in technology curricula. This paper uses document analysis to examine the locations of spatial ability related learning outcomes within the craft and technology curricula in Swedish compulsory education. A qualitative inductive approach is employed to analyse the policy document from the Swedish National Agency for Education. We argue that spatial ability development manifests in the Swedish craft and technology subject curricula along two dimensions. First, the curricula are underpinned by visual components, which are graphical, pictorial, and manufactured components. Second, along with the visual components, the curricula are delivered with the aim of constructing students' conceptual and procedural knowledge. Whilst the technology curriculum dominantly cultivates students' conceptual and procedural knowledge by interacting with the graphical and manufactured components such as sketches and objects, the craft curriculum is taught in a more diverse way where students are not only required to deal with graphical and manufactured components but also to involve in various pictorial components that convey cultural and historical meanings by craft products.
... Two types of visual change-detection tasks include identifying differences after sequentially seeing two versions of a scene (e.g., Shore et al., 2006;Stieff et al., 2020) or seeing two versions of the scene side-by-side (see "Hidden Pictures" tasks, https://www.highlightskids.com/games). Fewer elements in the scene or central errors make differences easier to spot (Rensink et al., 1997;Shore et al., 2006). ...
... Additionally, while deleted objects are the hardest to detect, changes in object position and orientation are easier to spot than changes in color (Rensink et al., 1997;Shore et al., 2006). In contrast, visual changes such as color on digital molecular representations were easier to detect than other changes such as spatial grouping for undergraduate students (Stieff et al., 2020). Debugging is a critical process in programming and non-programming activities such as puzzles or block building (Bofferding & Kocabas, 2021;Ahn, et al., 2021;Caeli & Yadav, 2020). ...
... This result suggests they could anticipate the rotation and that pictures on the bricks made them central to the Lego scene. It took longer for students to notice orientation Bug4 compared to Bug5, further suggesting that students might easily notice spatial bugs involving orientation when some visual feature makes it stand out more (Stieff et al., 2020). Contrary to traditional change detection tasks where identifying missing elements are hardest (Rensink et al., 1997), identifying the missing brick (Bug2) was one of the first two bugs students noticed, similar to prior Lego debugging results , even for five students who were only looking at the images. ...
Our study builds upon K-2 students' early block building experiences and the increased importance of fostering computational thinking skills, especially debugging. We had 12 K-2 students debug a Lego structure by finding and fixing differences between a given and target structure. Half of the students worked with red Lego bricks only while the other half worked with various colors of bricks. We analyzed the type and order of errors they fixed and their process for debugging. Misplaced Lego bricks on the plate were the most difficult for students to find and fix.
... Additionally, previous research suggests that spatial skills may affect students' learning with visual representations (Stieff et al., 2020). Visual representations typically depict visuospatial concepts. ...
... To understand concepts depicted in visual representations, students draw on spatial skills that allow students to mentally retain, retrieve, and transform the given visuals (Kozhevnikov et al., 2007;Uttal et al., 2013). Cognitive research on spatial skills explains individual differences in spatial skills in terms of differences in the amount of working memory consumed to store and manipulate visuospatial information (Hegarty & Waller, 2005;Stieff et al., 2020). By definition, low-spatial-skill students require more working memory resources to store and manipulate visuospatial information compared to high-spatial-skill students. ...
