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Context 1
... of our study areas are located in India, and one each in Malaysia, Indonesia, and Tanzania ( Fig. 1). All sites are different in terms of their climate, vegetation types and primate communities ( Table 1). The species have been listed and discussed by region. ...
Context 2
... we report on the contexts and diverse behaviours involved in the drinking of water accumulated in tree-holes by eight Old World primate species-chimpanzee Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii, Bornean orangutan Pongo pygmaeus morio, siamang Symphalan- gus syndactylus, western hoolock gibbon Hoolock hoolock, northern pig-tailed macaque Macaca leonina, bonnet macaque Macaca radi- ata, rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta and central Himalayan langur Semnopithecus schistaceus-inhabiting a wide range of habitats (Table 1). ...
Citations
... Non-breeding uses of cavities include denning or roosting inside (e.g., Brainerd et al. 1995;Bull, Akenson, and Henjum 2000;Isaac, De Gabriel, and Goodman 2008;Yatsiuk and Wesołowski 2020), feeding (Kobayashi et al. 2022), caching food (Kobayashi et al. 2022;Masoero et al. 2018;Vigliotti 2020), and drinking or bathing in water-filled cavities (Delgado-Martínez, Cudney-Valenzuela, and Mendoza 2021; Gossner et al. 2020;Sharma et al. 2016;Kirsch et al. 2021;Vickers, Hunter, and Hawes 2014). Cavities may be used for courtship displays, in some cases having distinct characteristics from those used for breeding (e.g., for Palm cockatoos Probosciger aterrimus: Heinsohn et al. 2017). ...
... The observations suggest that saproxylic communities in shallower cavities may face higher predation pressure due to better accessibility for birds; however, this statement needs further confirmation due to the abovementioned limitations of this study. Although cavities may generally provide few resources for local fauna, their role as additional feeding sources may be important in certain periods when the main food sources are scarce, similarly to the role of watering places in seasonallydry areas (Kirsch et al. 2021;Delgado-Martínez et al. 2023) or through the provision of safer feeding opportunities for arboreal species (Sharma et al. 2016). ...
Tree cavities offer protected shelters and resources for arboreal vertebrates worldwide. In general, cavities with larger openings are better accessible for predators and are avoided by smaller species for breeding, but can still be attractive for occasional use. The current study explores the diversity of functional use types and species interactions at the largest available tree cavities (entrance width ≥ 10 cm) in a temperate European forest with a low number of large cavity‐breeding species. Year‐round camera observations at 9 cavities (range 0.7–3.5 years) revealed 34 visiting species of birds and mammals, including non‐cavity‐breeding species. The top predator threatening other large‐cavity users was European pine marten (Martes martes), which regularly visited each cavity year‐round, on average every 0.7 months. Tawny owl (Strix aluco) was the only species successfully breeding in cavities, arguably because of its ability to defend the nests. However, other species visited cavities at an average rate of 1.5 visits per day, making predominantly short visits (less than 30 s) interpreted as exploration, searching for food, or inspecting for the presence of owls (mobbing). Making short visits and time segregation with predators was a behavioural strategy to exploit cavities for most species. These results confirm that, similarly to other keystone structures (large arboreal nests, ground burrows, etc.), large tree cavities attract a significant part of the arboreal vertebrate community and enrich their habitats. To sustain these functions in wooded ecosystems, management should provide a surplus of available cavities and diversity of their characteristics even when the apparent number of breeding species is low.
... The river is identified as the third crucial model variable, signifying that N. leucogenys is influenced by the presence of rivers. Previous studies have documented that many animals, particularly primates, actively seek out pools, ponds, and rivers, as water is vital for sustaining life (Sharma et al., 2016). Rivers are posited to be a significant factor affecting the distribution of N. leucogenys (Hallam et al., 2016), and certain primates may require water sources like tree holes, especially during specific seasons or in habitats with water shortages. ...
The northern white-cheeked gibbon (Nomascus leucogenys) is native species of Southeast Asia, found in Laos, Vietnam, and China. N. leucogenys is critically endangered on the IUCN Red List. This study aimed to evaluate and predict its potential distribution within Laos under current climate conditions (2022) and future scenarios for 2050 and 2070 using a species distribution modeling software. The study confirmed the presence of N. leucogenys by analyzing color patterns and call structures. Males have less reddish cheeks, a brownish chest patch, and mostly black fur with silver strands, except for pale cheek tufts. Females have a buff face-ring, creamy fur without dark underparts, and a dark brown crown patch with white facial hair. In terms of their calls, the duration of the great call is 14.10 ms, the maximum frequency is 2.260 kHz, and there are 13.00 pulses per great call. Solos last 6.80 ms with a maximum frequency of 1.420 kHz. Duet calls last 21.80 ms. The climate change significantly influences the potential distribution of N. leucogenys. The species distribution models (SDMs) suggest that the highest suited habitat for the 2070 scenario is 734.2 km², which is 0.3% of Laos PDR. This is followed by 2050 with 638.8 km² (0.2%), and 2022 with 236.93 km² (0.1%). These suitability assessments are affected by BIO 18 (23.5%, 29.4%, 38.8%), BIO 2 (15.5%, 12.9%, 12.6%), and river (15.2%, 11.9%, 9.7%). The results identified key considerations for conservation and future monitoring research, including three classes of habitat suitability: highly suitable, moderately suitable, and marginally suitable. These areas encompass approximately 1,397.3 km2 in 2022 (0.6% of Lao PDR), 2,752.8 km² in 2050 (1.2% of Lao PDR) and 3,026 km² in 2070 (1.3% of Lao PDR). These findings provide crucial baseline information for Laotian authorities to develop and implement an effective conservation action plan for N. leucogenys.
... Drinking behavior is characterized by short time allocation, and not all orangutans drink daily, as they can obtain water from tall plants with high water content. During the dry season and the absence of fruiting season, orangutans can obtain water from lianas by extracting the bark, chewing, and swallowing the water while discarding the waste from the bark (Sharma et al. 2016). ...
Iqbar I, Safriana R, Fauziah F. 2024. Feeding behavior and diet preferences of Sumatran orangutans (Pongo abelii Lesson 1827) at Soraya Research Station, Mount Leuser National Park, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 25: 1788-1796. The Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelii Lesson 1827) is an exclusive and indigenous primate species inhabiting the forests of Sumatra. Unfortunately, the species is constantly threatened by habitat loss and depletion of food sources due to human activities such as deforestation for agriculture and plantations. This study was conducted at the Soraya Research Station in the Leuser Ecosystem (Mount Leuser National Park), Indonesia, from December 2021 to July 2022 to investigate the Sumatran orangutan's feeding behavior and diet preferences. Focal Animal Sampling was employed as the observation method, with data collected every 2 minutes. The parameters measured were eating behavior, body position during feeding, and type of food consumed. The sample included three orangutans: one adult male, one adult female, and one juvenile male. Behavioral observations were carried out for 18,000 minutes, namely 2,160 minutes for adult males, 7,920 minutes for adult females and 9,720 minutes for juvenile males. The study found that the total eating behavior was 6204 minutes, with chewing being the most frequent behavior observed. Orangutans were more likely to eat while hanging. The diet included 41 species from 20 families, and the orangutan's preferred food was cambium damli (Streblus elongatus) from the Moraceae family. This research describes the types of food eaten by orangutans and is expected to provide information for research station managers to ensure the availability of these plants.
... Tropical birds and mammals have evolved different strategies to exploit water sources. They can use water in rivers and pools (e.g., Stommel et al., 2016) or tank epiphytes and water-filled tree holes in the canopy (e.g., Sharma et al., 2016). Some species, such as scansorial mammals and birds, likely have more flexibility to use surface and canopy water sources, but for other animals, access might be more limited. ...
Water availability significantly influences bird and mammal ecology in terrestrial ecosystems. However, our understanding of the role of water as a limiting resource for birds and mammals remains partial because most of the studies have focused on surface water bodies in desert and semi-desert ecosystems. This study assessed the use of two types of surface water bodies (waterholes and epikarst rock pools) and one arboreal (water-filled tree holes) by birds and mammals in the seasonally dry tropical forests of the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve in southern Mexico. We deployed camera traps in 23 waterholes, 22 rock pools, and 19 water-filled tree holes in this karstic region to record visits by small, medium, and large-bodied birds and mammals during the dry and rainy seasons. These cameras were set up for recording videos documenting when animals were making use of water for drinking, bathing, or both. We compared the species diversity and composition of bird and mammal assemblages using the different types of water bodies by calculating Hill numbers and conducting nonmetric multidimensional scaling (NMDS), indicator species, and contingency table analyses. There was a greater species richness of birds and mammals using surface water bodies than tree holes during both seasons. There were significant differences in species composition among bird assemblages using the different water bodies, but dominant species and diversity remained the same. Terrestrial and larger mammalian species preferentially used surface water bodies, whereas arboreal and scansorial small and medium mammals were more common in arboreal water bodies. These findings suggest that differences in water body characteristics might favor segregation in mammal activity. The different water bodies may act as alternative water sources for birds and complementary sources for mammals, potentially favoring species coexistence and increasing community resilience to environmental variation (e.g., fluctuations in water availability). Understanding how differences in water bodies favor species coexistence and community resilience is of great relevance from a basic ecological perspective but is also crucial for anticipating the effects that the increased demand for water by humans and climate change can have on wildlife viability.
... This description is very similar to the drinking behavior of François' langurs. Instead, the gibbon typically procures water from holes in tree trunks or indirectly by the ingestion of certain plant parts (Sharma et al., 2016). ...
Clarifying the scientific identity of ancient biological names in historical archives is essential to understand traditional knowledge and literary metaphors of animals in human culture. Adopting a cross-disciplinary (Primatology, Linguistics, Historiography, Historical Sociology) analysis, we developed a theoretical framework for studies of the scientific identity of Chinese primate traditional names (e.g., Yuan ) throughout history, and interpret the historical evolution of the understanding of the Chinese word Yuan. Presently, the Chinese generally understand Yuan to be a gibbon (or "ape" in a broader sense), but this statement has many contradictions with the understanding of the word in relevant historical discourse. We review and comment on key evidence to support the traditional understanding of Yuan as a gibbon (Hylobatidae) and clarify the historical and current thought concerning Yuan. We find that the referent of the word Yuan has changed from "François' langur (Trachypithecus francoisi) with long limbs" to the "long-armed ape or gibbon" known today through two major changes in the idea of Yuan. One transformation in the conceptualization of Yuan took place during the Tang-Song period, with the other beginning at the end of the nineteenth century and ending in the 1950s. An interaction between the conceptualization of animals and power (e.g., political opportunity; cultural movement toward learning western sciences in the semi-colonial era) played an important role in these two diachronic changes to the idea of Yuan. In contrast to the clear linear relation between a species and its Latin name, our study indicates that one traditional name can represent varying animal species in China. Our findings exemplify the implications of the sociocultural and linguistic basis for the species identification of primate names found in historical discourse for historical zoogeography, our understanding of the intricate cultural and religious connections between humans and primates, and efforts to decolonize primatology.
Supplementary information:
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10764-022-00302-1.
... Tropical forest vertebrates can obtain water from sources located on the ground (Stommel et al., 2016) or in trees (Sharma et al., 2016). Trees can hold different types of water reservoirs, among which epiphytic bromeliads have received particular attention (Beisiegel, 2001;Souza et al., 2009). ...
Using camera traps, we documented that 21 bird and 9 mammal species use water‐filled tree holes (dendrotelmata) in the seasonal tropical forest of the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, in southern Mexico. These species visited dendrotelmata primarily for foraging and drinking. The overall use of dendrotelmata was equally frequent between dry and rainy seasons but drinking behavior increased among birds during the dry season.
Mediante la instalación de cámaras trampa, documentamos que 21 especies de aves y 9 de mamíferos usan los huecos de los árboles que acumulan agua (dendrotelmata) en la selva neotropical dentro de la Reserva de la Biosfera Calakmul (México). Estas especies visitaron los dendrotelmata principalmente para forrajear y beber agua. La frecuencia general de uso de los dendrotelmata fue similar tanto en la temporada de secas como de lluvias, sin embargo, durante la temporada de secas aumentó la frecuencia en la que las aves bebieron agua. A wide array of bird and mammal species visit dendrotelmata to drink water and forage in the Biosphere Reserve of Calakmul, Mexico.
... Macaques, as many other NHPs, live in arboreal and terrestrial regions, where periods with considerable rainfall may be followed by dry seasons with no water in rivers and ponds, and monthly rainfall of only a few millimeters (Neville, 1968;Lindburg, 1977;Makwana, 1978;Takenaka, 1986). During these times, they are limited to consume water from tree holes and to lick dew and rainwater in the early morning (Sharma et al., 2016). Note that this may coincide with temporary increases of plasma proteins, sodium, and creatinine (Takenaka, 1986). ...
The non-human primate (NHP) constitutes an extraordinarily important model in neuroscience research for understanding the neuronal underpinnings of perceptual, motor, cognitive, and executive functions of the primate brain, and to study the physiological causes, effects, and potential treatments of brain disorders. Due to their cognitive capabilities, NHPs receive special attention in Animal Welfare Regulations around the world, and their well-being is a benchmark for the evaluation, monitoring, and refinement of experimental procedures. As a consequence, many typical neuroscientific procedures are considered only mildly severe by animal welfare boards. There is, however, an ongoing debate about possible long-term and cumulative effects. Due to a lack of longitudinal data, it is unclear whether mildly severe procedures may cause more significant harm on the long-term, and to what extent they may impact animal well-being and healthiness over time. We here make use of a database of blood samples drawn over a period of 15 years from 39 rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) to address the issue of long-term, cumulative effects of neuroscientific procedures. A careful analysis of indicative primate blood markers for chronic inflammation, hydration status, and stress levels, their comparison to baseline values from both the same animals and the literature, and evaluation of additional hematological, physiological, and behavioral parameters did not provide support for the notion of long-term, cumulative effects on the monkeys’ healthiness and well-being. The results may serve the community as a reference for the severity assessment of neuroscientific experiments involving NHPs.
... This is interesting as while δ 13 C and δ 15 N mainly relate to the isotopic characteristics of ingested foods, δ 18 O in animal bodies can be determined by not only the food, but much more so by drinking water and air 39 . Arboreal primates are commonly assumed to mainly rely on water deriving directly from plant foods 40 . This would suggest that leaf δ 18 O values will considerably affect the δ 18 O values of these primates, which we will test in this study. ...
... This will remain to be tested. Rainwater accumulations in tree holes may be an additional source of water undergoing different rates of evaporation in the forest canopy, though their use has not been described for the primates mentioned in this study 40 . ...
The canopy effect describes vertical variation in the isotope ratios of carbon (δ13C), oxygen (δ18O) and partially nitrogen (δ15N) within plants throughout a closed canopy forest, and may facilitate the study of canopy feeding niches in arboreal primates. However, the nuanced relationship between leaf height, sunlight exposure and the resulting variation in isotope ratios and leaf mass per area (LMA) has not been documented for an African rainforest. Here, we present δ13C, δ18O and δ15N values of leaves (n = 321) systematically collected from 58 primate food plants throughout the canopy (0.3 to 42 m) in Côte d’Ivoire, West Africa. Besides leaf sample height and light availability, we measured leaf nitrogen and carbon content (%N, %C), as well as LMA (n = 214) to address the plants’ vertical resource allocations. We found significant variation in δ13C, δ18O and δ15N, as well as LMA in response to height in combination with light availability and tree species, with low canopy leaves depleted in 13C, 18O and 15N and slightly higher in %N compared to higher canopy strata. While this vertical isotopic variation was not well reflected in the δ13C and δ15N of arboreal primates from this forest, it did correspond well to primate δ18O values.
... wasps, bees and beetles, Gossner 2018, Petermann unpubl.). Vertebrates are sometimes targeted in WH studies from tropical and subtropical regions (Yanoviak 2001, Walters and Kneitel 2004, Vickers et al. 2014, Sharma et al. 2016), but to our knowledge, there is no study carried out in temperate regions on the use of WHs by vertebrates. ...
... In the tropics and sub-tropics, researchers reported mainly amphibians, reptiles, marsupial gliders and primates using the WHs. Possible uses include life cycle development, typical for amphibians (Yanoviak 2001); drinking, which is documented for primates (Sharma et al. 2016) and suggested for bats (Boyles et al. 2006); and bathing, as it has been observed for birds (Baker 1983). A field study by Gossner et al. (2020) in temperate beech forests revealed that fake larvae displayed in WHs are frequently attacked by small mammals and birds, indicating WHs are used and harbor potential food resources. ...
... Differently from the tropics (Yanoviak 2001), we did not record reptiles visiting the WHs. The activities carried out at WHs by other vertebrate species, however, resembled those recorded in the tropical and subtropical environment, including drinking, bathing and feeding (Yanoviak 2001, Walters and Kneitel 2004, Vickers et al. 2014, Sharma et al. 2016). The importance of vertebrate predation on the aquatic insect larvae in WHs have recently been shown by experiments with fake larvae in European beech forests (Gossner et al. 2020). ...
Water-filled tree holes (WHs), commonly referred to as dendrotelmata, develop when water accumulates in cavities related to tree architecture or in rotten parts of the tree. These structures can occur in forest ecosystems and may repre-sent essential microhabitats in the life cycle of various animal species. WHs form temporary microhabitats during wet periods and sometimes sustain water throughout dry seasons. Research on the use of WHs by organisms mainly focuses on invertebrates developing in these while vertebrates are rarely mentioned. A literature search on the use of WHs by vertebrates revealed that attention has been given only to vertebrates in tropical and subtropical systems, mostly to groups with aquatic stages, such as amphibians. To fill the knowledge gap on the use of WHs by vertebrates in temperate forests, we conducted a camera study in three sites across Germany. We identified a total of 28 vertebrate species including 11 mammal, 17 bird and one amphibian species using the WHs. The recorded videos showed that vertebrates use the WHs mainly for nutrition and hydration. With an expected future increase in frequency and intensity of dry spells in central Europe, these microhabitats may sustain healthy forest ecosystems by providing resources for wildlife. Reliable, updated data about the importance of WHs for vertebrates is required to urge forest managers and stakeholders to enforce the preservation of these microhabitats.
... nutrients, hormones, metabolites, antibodies, and neurotransmitters), electrolyte homeostasis, transmission of light and sound, and thermoregulation [2][3][4]. Therefore, water intake is essential for animal health and survival, particularly in the case of terrestrial vertebrates [3,[5][6][7]. ...
... metabolic water resulting from macronutrient oxidation) water during dry periods [2,10]. In addition to these water sources, animals inhabiting wetter environments also rely on another major source, drinking water [2,7,11]. Drinking is rare (e.g. ...
Water is vital for the survival of any species because of its key role in most physiological processes. However, little is known about the non-food-related water sources exploited by arboreal mammals, the seasonality of their drinking behavior and its potential drivers, including diet composition, temperature, and rainfall. We investigated this subject in 14 wild groups of brown howler monkeys (Alouatta guariba clamitans) inhabiting small, medium, and large Atlantic Forest fragments in southern Brazil. We found a wide variation in the mean rate of drinking among groups (range = 0–16 records/day). Streams (44% of 1,258 records) and treeholes (26%) were the major types of water sources, followed by bromeliads in the canopy (16%), pools (11%), and rivers (3%). The type of source influenced whether howlers used a hand to access the water or not. Drinking tended to be evenly distributed throughout the year, except for a slightly lower number of records in the spring than in the other seasons, but it was unevenly distributed during the day. It increased in the afternoon in all groups, particularly during temperature peaks around 15:00 and 17:00. We found via generalized linear mixed modelling that the daily frequency of drinking was mainly influenced negatively by flower consumption and positively by weekly rainfall and ambient temperature, whereas fragment size and the consumption of fruit and leaves played negligible roles. Overall, we confirm the importance of preformed water in flowers to satisfy the howler’s water needs, whereas the influence of the climatic variables is compatible with the ‘thermoregulation/dehydration-avoiding hypothesis’. In sum, we found that irrespective of habitat characteristics, brown howlers seem to seek a positive water balance by complementing the water present in the diet with drinking water, even when it is associated with a high predation risk in terrestrial sources.
