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We aimed to examine the connections between individual affective characteristics and crying, and to evaluate Rottenberg, Bylsma, and Vingerhoets’ (2008) framework for studying crying and mood. We analyzed the relationship among features of the social environment, mood characteristics of the crier, crying frequency/urge to cry, and mood change acros...
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... reported no change in the situation that caused the crying (75.4%). Table 1 provides descriptive statistics for the crying and mood variables, and the correlations among these variables are presented in Table 2. Descriptive statistics for the context variables used in the regression analyses are presented in Table 3. Note: MSSD = mean squared successive deviations. ...Citations
... Accordingly, these approaches contain only limited ecological validity and can Table 1 Chronological overview of existing crying taxonomies ACI Adult Crying Inventory a based on crying proneness ratings, b also mentioned in the overview provided by Vingerhoets and colleagues (2001). Please note that we omit unpublished, pre-printed, and non-empirical work in this overview Authors (1) positive antecedents and (2) negative antecedents Bylsma et al. 2011 Labels assigned by the authors to categorize open-response reports on crying episodes (labels were not theoretically embedded) (1) conflict, (2) loss, (3) personal failing, (4) suffering of others, (5) positive experience, (6) physical condition, (7) mental experience, and (8) combination/other Bylsma et al. 2008 Labels assigned by the authors to categorize open-response reports on crying episodes (labels were not theoretically embedded) (1) conflict, (2) loss, (3) personal inadequacy, (4) witnessing suffering, (5) physical suffering, (6) psychological suffering, and (7) positive events Scheirs & Sijtsma 2001 a Exploratory factor analysis on basis of ACI ratings three-factor solution: (1) distress, (2) joy, and (3) sadness; two-factor solution: (1) negative emotions and (2) positive emotions Vingerhoets et al. b 1997 Labels assigned by the authors to categorized open-response reports on crying episodes (labels were not theoretically embedded) (1) rejection, (2) personal inadequacy (including: 'becoming the cause of other people's suffering' and 'having done something in conflict with your conscience'), (3) physical pain, injury, and psychological pain (e.g., seeing other people suffer, making people disappointed), (4) separation, (5) criticism, being rebuked, and (6) positive factor Wagner et al. b 1997 Labels assigned by the authors to categorize open-response reports on crying episodes (labels were not theoretically embedded) no taxonomy proposed, but the following antecedents were reported: (1) confrontation with death and (2) overtired, frustrated, or been criticized or humiliated by senior staff ...
... Alternatively, one might conclude that impotencerelated crying is somewhat overestimated in retrospective studies. The prevalence for harmony-related crying was low in both studies and is comparable with prior work (Bylsma et al., 2011;Vingerhoets et al., 1997). This speaks against a systematic underestimation of positive tears in our studies. ...
... In line with the diary study by Bylsma et al. (2011), we found a quadratic effect of time on affect. In comparison to the day before and after crying, affect was worst on the crying day, i.e., affect over time followed a U-shape. ...
Human beings are probably the only creatures with a capacity to shed emotional tears. While prior work has mostly used data-driven approaches to identify situational antecedents of adult crying, we present a theory-based taxonomy. Assuming that crying is preceded by the frustration or satisfaction of psychological needs, we postulate that the most common antecedents of crying can be organized into five categories—that is, the Five Reasons to Cry (FRC): loneliness, impotence, overload, harmony, and media. Testing our assumptions in a retrospective study (N = 720, pre-registered) and a thirty-day electronic diary study (N = 91) showed that (i) crying episodes could be reliably assigned to the FRC, (ii) the theorized relations to frustrated/satisfied psychological needs emerged, and (iii) the categories were systematically related to subjective well-being, indicating their criterion validity. In sum, this research provides a valid taxonomy of common situational antecedents of adult emotional crying.
... Current methods in crying research range from retrospective surveys (Bylsma et al., 2008), diary studies (Bylsma et al., 2011), and clinical observations (Capps et al., 2013) to experiments leveraging digitally manipulated tears (Krivan & Thomas, 2020) and examining the physiological correlates of weeping (Sharman et al., 2020). Due to the variety in approaches, the role of emotional tears in socio-emotional signalling is not well understood since a shared methodological basis has been missing so far. ...
The vast majority of research on human emotional tears has relied on posed and static stimulus materials. In this paper, we introduce the Portsmouth Dynamic Spontaneous Tears Database (PDSTD), a free resource comprising video recordings of 24 female encoders depicting a balanced representation of sadness stimuli with and without tears. Encoders watched a neutral film and a self-selected sad film and reported their emotional experience for 9 emotions. Extending this initial validation, we obtained norming data from an independent sample of naïve observers ( N = 91, 45 females) who watched videos of the encoders during three time phases (neutral, pre-sadness, sadness), yielding a total of 72 validated recordings. Observers rated the expressions during each phase on 7 discrete emotions, negative and positive valence, arousal, and genuineness. All data were analyzed by means of general linear mixed modelling (GLMM) to account for sources of random variance. Our results confirm the successful elicitation of sadness, and demonstrate the presence of a tear effect , i.e., a substantial increase in perceived sadness for spontaneous dynamic weeping. To our knowledge, the PDSTD is the first database of spontaneously elicited dynamic tears and sadness that is openly available to researchers. The stimuli can be accessed free of charge via OSF from https://osf.io/uyjeg/?view_only=24474ec8d75949ccb9a8243651db0abf .
... Thus, mood after crying from negative emotions is associated with increased negative emotions. In the only study that examined the intra-individual function of crying from positive emotions, a diary approach was used to capture crying episodes in everyday situations and analyze mood changes after crying (Bylsma et al., 2011). The results found that crying at positive experiences was associated with positive mood changes. ...
Emotional crying has been extensively discussed but has concentrated on crying as a result of negative emotion. There are few psychological and neurophysiological findings on the effect of positive emotion on crying. In this study, participants watched four videos (two positive and two negative) evoking different emotions. We investigated whether emotional crying differed in mood and physiological response. Changes in electrodermal activity, high-frequency components of heart rate variability, and the Profile of Mood States were measured as indicators of mood, parasympathetic, and sympathetic nerve activity. Those who cried showed no significant increase in parasympathetic activity compared to those who did not, regardless of the emotion. However, in negative emotion, crying was found to be significantly positively associated with depression and sympathetic nerve activity. In contrast, positive emotion, crying was positively and significantly associated with vigor, but not with sympathetic nervous activity. These results suggest that crying due to positive and negative emotions may be derived from different psychophysiological mechanisms.
... Current conceptualizations of emotional crying assume that whether a person cries or not depends on various factors such as context features, like the presence of others (Bylsma et al., 2011), and psychosocial factors, like gender (De Fruyt, 1997) and personality (Vingerhoets et al., 2000). In the present work, we aimed to enhance our understanding of how personality traits relate to human emotional crying, since former studies left some questions open in this context. ...
... Compared to former studies, we applied an alternative approach to assess affect-and arousal-changes after crying. On average, emotional crying was followed by more positive affect and less arousal, pointing at a potential cathartic effect of emotional crying (Bylsma et al., 2011). ...
... Especially, the measures for affectand arousal-changes, which refer to the affect/arousal two hours or longer after crying, are at risk to be distorted by such biases. Future studies should therefore make use of diary techniques to minimize such risks (Bylsma et al., 2011). Nevertheless, we suppose that crying episodes are quite remarkable experiences for most respondents -since they are typically associated with strong emotions -and accordingly we are confident that a heavy misrepresentation of these episodes in memory is much less likely than it is true for other kinds of episodes. ...
Emotional crying represents a specific form of emotion expression that did receive considerably less attention in emotion research than most other emotional phenomena. We examined the relation between personality traits and the frequency of emotional crying. In a well-powered, pre-registered study (N = 622), participants were asked to report the number of times they had been crying during the past four weeks. We assessed the personality dimensions represented in the HEXACO personality inventory and disintegration (proneness to psychotic-like experiences) as personality traits. Additionally, we asked respondents to report on the extent to which they (typically) perceive affect-and arousal-changes after crying episodes as well as on their subjective well-being. As predicted, emotionality and disintegration were positively associated with crying frequency. Explorative analyses revealed that extraversion, agreeableness and subjective well-being were negatively associated with crying frequency. Further, honesty-humility, extraversion and agreeableness were related to positive affect after crying, while arousal change (in direction of calmness) was a function of honesty-humility, agreeableness, and openness. The present study indicates that human emotional crying is not only related to emotionality (or neuroticism) but to a set of traits, depending on which aspect of crying is in the focus of attention.
... Overall in the intake sessions evaluated in the present study, more women than men cried, which is consistent with findings from a host of extant studies (e.g., Becht et al., 2001;Bylsma et al., 2011;Capps et al., 2015;Vingerhoets, 2013). In addition, based on findings from Capps et al. (2015), we hypothesized that criers would have higher levels of BPD characteristics, lower global functioning scores and greater severity of childhood sexual abuse. ...
The aim of the present study is to further the understanding of who cries at the beginning of psychotherapy, and patients’ experience of crying in that process. Intake sessions for 53 patients beginning psychotherapy at a university‐based clinic were coded for discrete crying segments. Data about patient characteristics were also collected at intake. Results indicate that crying during intake sessions was related to lower global functioning and higher severity of childhood sexual abuse. Furthermore, patients who cried at intake were over 4 times more likely to also cry at feedback, and those who cried at feedback were almost 12 times more likely to have cried at intake. Finally, crying in the intake session did not appear to be related to patient‐ or therapist‐rated working alliance. Overall, the present study provides valuable information about characteristics of patients who cry at the outset of the therapy process and patients’ experience of crying over time in therapy. Findings suggest the need for further research on patient characteristics and aspects of the therapy process that may predict patient crying over the course of treatment, as well as how these early crying experiences may be related to eventual patient outcomes.
... The most notable individual difference in crying frequency and proneness is the sex differential, which has been observed across cultures in 37 different countries (van Hemert, van de Vijver, & Vingerhoets, 2011). Although male and female infants do not significantly differ in crying frequency (Vingerhoets & Scheirs, 2000), it is well established, via self-and other-reports, that adult women on average cry significantly more frequently than adult men (2-5 vs. 0 -1 times per month, respectively; Bylsma, Croon, Vingerhoets, & Rottenberg, 2011;Vingerhoets, 2013). Similarly, women are also more prone to cry (i.e., they have a lower crying threshold), based on both self-report and laboratory findings (Gračanin et al., 2015). ...
... Despite the widespread popular belief that crying makes people feel better (the "catharsis" hypothesis; Cornelius, 1997), the empirical evidence reveals a more complex picture. Specifically, only 50% of individuals from the ISAC study retrospectively reported feeling better after crying in their most recent crying episode , and in a daily diary study of over 1,000 crying episodes in women, only 30% of individuals reported experiencing a mood benefit from crying (Bylsma et al., 2011). In both studies, 10% of individuals reported feeling worse following crying. ...
... In contrast, depression, anxiety, and alexithymia are associated with less self-reported mood improvement following crying (Rottenberg, Cevaal, & Vingerhoets, 2008;Rottenberg, Bylsma, Wolvin, et al., 2008). Finally, there is evidence from a daily mood diary study that the intensity of crying seems to positively predict the end-of-the-day postcrying mood improvement (Bylsma et al., 2011). ...
The goal of this clinical practice review is to assess the current state of the theoretical and empirical literature on emotional crying (i.e., crying in response to an emotional stimulus), a topic that has received surprisingly limited attention of behavioral scientists and clinicians. Although the empirical research on emotional crying remains in a nascent state, we draw upon the existing scientific knowledge to provide preliminary suggestions for clinicians on how to interpret and respond to crying in clinical contexts. We also identify research gaps and provide recommendations for further research to improve our understanding of this intriguing and still poorly understood human behavior. We suggest that a better understanding of individual differences in crying behavior and the postulated intraindividual and interindividual functions of crying is of critical importance for clinicians, given its frequent occurrence and notable associations with emotional and social functioning. An improved characterization of this important phenomenon will lead to improvements in clinical assessment, treatment planning, and psychotherapy interventions. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
... The way in which people remember and evaluate their crying experiences are influenced by many factors. These may be whether the cause of crying was positive or negative, how long since the crying occurred (with crying remembered more positively the more time has passed), and social variables, such as the number of people present (Rottenberg et al., 2008a;Bylsma et al., 2011;Vingerhoets, 2013). When researchers consider the social effects of crying, they primarily focus on specific social contexts. ...
... Crying research has tended to focus on how people evaluate their crying experiences by measuring whether people feel better or worse following crying (see Becht and Vingerhoets, 2002;Bylsma et al., 2011). Alongside monitoring changes to their own internal mood and emotional states across time, people also appear to use broader evaluative strategies to understand their crying experiences through beliefs that they hold about how crying works generally and in different social contexts (Sharman et al., 2018). ...
... Thus far, research is scant on whether social crying is beneficial from the perspective of the crier. However, Bylsma et al. (2011) investigated mood change and its relationship to the number of people present. They found that having another person present was associated with an improved mood, whereas crying alone or with more than one person was associated with worse emotion states following crying. ...
This study aimed to (1) investigate the variation in self ascription to gender roles and attitudes toward gender roles across countries and its associations with crying behaviors, emotion change, and beliefs about crying and (2) understand how the presence of others affects our evaluations of emotion following crying. This was a large international survey design study (N = 893) conducted in Australia, Croatia, the Netherlands, Thailand, and the United Kingdom. Analyses revealed that, across countries, gender, self-ascribed gender roles, and gender role attitudes (GRA) were related to behavioral crying responses, but not related to emotion change following crying. How a person evaluates crying, instead, appeared to be highly related to one’s beliefs about the helpfulness of crying, irrespective of gender. Results regarding crying when others were present showed that people are more likely both to cry and to feel that they received help around a person that they know, compared to a stranger. Furthermore, closeness to persons present during crying did not affect whether help was provided. When a crier reported that they were helped, they also tended to report feeling better following crying than those who cried around others but did not receive help. Few cross-country differences emerged, suggesting that a person’s responses to crying are quite consistent among the countries investigated here, with regard to its relationship with a person’s gender role, crying beliefs, and reactions to the presence of others.
... Recently, several theories on the utility of crying have been proposed and investigated (Bylsma et al. 2011;) and the distinction between intrapersonal and interpersonal functions of crying has emerged (Denckla et al. 2014;Simons et al. 2013). Potential intrapersonal functions that have been suggested include catharsis or feelings of relief and mood improvement after tears have been shed (Rottenberg et al. 2008;Simons et al. 2013). ...
... Potential intrapersonal functions that have been suggested include catharsis or feelings of relief and mood improvement after tears have been shed (Rottenberg et al. 2008;Simons et al. 2013). Despite strong lay beliefs in catharsis the empirical support is insufficient (Bylsma et al. 2011). Additionally, it has been suggested that intra-personal motives for crying could relate to self-concepts, being a person who is adequately emotional (Simons et al. 2013). ...
The purpose of crying has recently become a topic of interest, with evidence supporting its interpersonal functions. The assumption that tears not only express a need for help, but in reaction also foster willingness to help in an observer, has received preliminary empirical support. The current study replicated previous work using a within-subject design with 140 subjects (50% female) who were exposed to images depicting male and female individuals crying, with half of both displaying visible tears and the others not displaying tears. Novel is our comparison of willingness to help across all possible gender combinations of tear display and observer. Potential mediation by perceived helplessness, friendliness, and connectedness of the depicted person was tested in male and female participants separately. We replicated the strong effect of tears on willingness to help, and showed this effect to be less potent for male dyads than for female or mixed ones, which is new to the literature. Perceived helplessness mediated the link between crying and helping, whereas perceived connectedness seemed only relevant for female participants, and perceived friendliness was not significant. Possible origins and implications of a differential gender function of crying are discussed.
... For example, research on these social functions have found that when viewing a sad crying face, people are more likely to experience feelings of sadness, less likely to report feelings of avoidance, and more likely to provide emotional support and helping behaviors overall (Balsters, Krahmer, Swerts, & Vingerhoets, 2013;Hendriks, Croon, & Vingerhoets, 2008;Hendriks & Vingerhoets, 2006;Vingerhoets, van de Ven, & van der Velden, 2016). However, research concerning the intrapersonal (individual) functions of crying has yielded less consistent findings, with effects varying depending on the timing of questioning, context of crying, and affective state of the crier (Bylsma, Croon, Vingerhoets, & Rottenberg, 2011;Rottenberg, Bylsma, Wolvin, & Vingerhoets, 2008). ...
... However, when asked to think specifically about their last crying episode, this reduced to 51% of people reporting that crying brought positive effects . Further, when women were asked on the day the crying occurred, only 30% reported positive effects of crying (Bylsma et al., 2011). ...
This research tested the hypothesis that emotional crying facilitates coping and recovery, specifically through physiological changes that occur during crying. Female undergraduate students (N = 197) were randomly assigned to either a sad or neutral condition using short videos. Sad videos were selected for their extreme emotion elicitation. We predicted that compared to those who did not cry to the stimuli and those who were exposed to neutral videos, people who cried would (a) be able to withstand a stressful task for longer; (b) show lower levels of cortisol following crying and exposure to the stressor; and (c) have faster recovery (i.e., return to baseline levels of affect). The final groups consisted of the neutral group (n = 65), sad criers (n = 71), and sad noncriers (n = 61). After a 5-min baseline period, participants watched either the sad or neutral videos for 17 min and then completed a physical stressor (cold pressor test). Heart rate and respiration were continuously recorded, whereas salivary samples for cortisol were taken at 4 separate time points during testing. Analyses revealed no differences between the 3 groups in time withstanding the stressor or cortisol changes. Respiration rate, however, increased in the neutral group and noncriers while watching the videos, with criers' respiration remaining stable. Furthermore, heart rate was found to decelerate just before crying, with a return to baseline during the first crying period. These results suggest that crying may assist in generally maintaining biological homeostasis, perhaps consciously through self-soothing via purposeful breathing and unconsciously through regulation of heart rate. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).
... Although the used frequency measures and the Crying Proneness Scale (Denckla et al., 2014) have demonstrated validity, it is also known that retrospective self-reports can be vulnerable to bias due to implicit theories or memory failures (Van Tilburg et al., 2003). Thus, in future research, the current findings need to be crossvalidated with observations and other methodology to assess crying, such as exposing patients and controls to emotional movies ( Van der Veen et al., 2012) or using daily diary measures of crying (Bylsma et al., 2011). Alternatively, one might consider asking people in the social environment of the patient (friends, relatives) about the patient's crying behavior. ...
Emotion dysregulation and hyperreactivity are considered central features of Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD). We assumed that such emotion dysregulation is also reflected in increased crying behavior of these patients and, consequently, hypothesized that BPD patients (N=62), compared to Cluster C personality disorder
patients (Cluster C-PD; N=25) and non-patients (N=54), would show higher scores on crying measures. To evaluate crying behavior, we used a set of specially designed tools. Compared to non-patients, BPD patients showed the anticipated higher crying frequency despite a similar crying proneness and ways of dealing with tears. They also reported less awareness of the influence of crying on others. However, Cluster C-PD patients showed a very similar pattern of findings. Overall, our results suggest that the increased crying of BPD patients likely results from environmental factors or the misperception of situations, rather than from stable traits.
Remarkable is that the observed discrepancies in crying behavior compared to non-patients seem to be similar for Cluster-C PDs and BPD.
