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Changes in weekly rates of total training stress (arbitrary units) across consecutive macro-cycles of a two-peak competitive season in Olympic-distance triathletes: (a) swim, (b) bike, (c) run (reproduced from Vleck [12], with permission). EB endurance base, T transition, PC pre-competition, C competition, S swim, B bike, R run, L intensity level (rated as 1–5 with 1 being the lowest intensity)
Source publication
Although the sport of triathlon provides an opportunity to research the effect of multi-disciplinary exercise on health across the lifespan, much remains to be done. The literature has failed to consistently or adequately report subject age group, sex, ability level, and/or event-distance specialization. The demands of training and racing are relat...
Citations
... We found that optimal water temperature was over 22 °C and optimal air temperature between 19 and 26 °C. It is well known that environmental conditions are important for the health of IRONMAN ® triathletes 37 . Regarding ultra-endurance events such as an IRONMAN ® 70.3 or a full-distance IRONMAN ® triathlon, competing in tropical environments such as IRONMAN ® Hawaii requests special needs such as hydration, cooling strategies, and heat acclimation [38][39][40][41] . ...
We have (i) little knowledge about where the fastest professional IRONMAN triathletes originate from and where the fastest races take place and (ii) we have no knowledge of the optimal weather conditions for an IRONMAN triathlon. The aims of the present study were, therefore, (i) to investigate the origin and the fastest IRONMAN race courses for professional triathletes and (ii) to evaluate the best environmental conditions (i.e. water and air temperatures and type of race course) for the fastest IRONMAN race times in professional IRONMAN triathletes. Data of all professional female and male IRONMAN triathletes competing between 2002 and 2022 in all IRONMAN races held worldwide were collected. A total of 6,943 finishers´ records (4,162 from men and 2,781 from women) from 58 different countries participating in 54 different event locations between 2002 and 2022 were considered. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and machine learning (ML) regression models. The models considered gender, country of origin, event location, water, and air temperature as independent variables to predict the final race time. Three different ML models were built and evaluated, based on three algorithms, in order of growing complexity and predictive power: Decision Tree Regressor, Random Forest Regressor, and XG Boost Regressor. Most of the athletes originated from the USA (1786), followed by athletes from Germany (674), Canada (426), Australia (396), United Kingdom (342), France (325), and Switzerland (276). Most of the athletes competed in IRONMAN Hawaii (925), IRONMAN Florida (563), IRONMAN Austria (452), IRONMAN France (354), IRONMAN Wisconsin (330), IRONMAN Lanzarote (322) and IRONMAN Texas (313). The Decision Tree and the XG Boost models were the best performing models (r² = 0.48) and rated the relative feature importances in the order gender, country of origin, water temperature, air temperature and event location. Men were on average ~ 0.8 h faster than women. Switzerland had the fastest and Japan and Slovakia the slowest athletes. IRONMAN Brazil Florianopolis, IRONMAN Barcelona, and IRONMAN Louisville hold the fastest races. Optimal water temperature was over 22 °C and optimal air temperature between 19 and 26 °C. Between 2002 and 2022, most professional IRONMAN triathletes originated from the USA, and most professional IRONMAN triathletes competed in IRONMAN Hawaii. The fastest athletes originated from Switzerland, the fastest race courses were IRONMAN Brazil Florianopolis, IRONMAN Barcelona, and IRONMAN Louisville. The fastest race times were achieved in water temperature warmer than 22 °C and air temperature between 19 and 26 °C.
... Amateur triathletes train for roughly 13 hours per week (Esteve-Lanao et al., 2017), whereas elite triathletes typically train for over 20 hours per week (Vleck et al., 2014). The general preparation period (GPP) is an essential part of the training cycle for elite athletes. ...
Triathlon is an endurance-based sport, and performance success is strongly impacted by the training done throughout the general preparation phase. The aim of this study was to examine the duration, frequency, and volume of the general preparation phase training block in elite male triathletes. The 5-week training loads of 11 elite male triathletes (Height:179 cm ∓2.82, Weight: 76 ∓10.77 kg) in the general training period were examined. The weekly averages of endurance-based long-distance swimming training sessions were found to be (1.9 sessions, 204.5 minutes, and 5.4 kilometers), the weekly averages of endurance-based long-distance biking training sessions were found to be (1.5 sessions, 316.4 minutes, and 160 kilometers), the weekly averages of endurance-based long-distance running training sessions were found to be (1.5 sessions, 89.1 minutes, and 44.8 kilometers). These training sessions were identified as the most commonly performed exercises by coaches during the general preparation phase. The training sessions that are most frequently performed are followed by sprint swimming workouts in terms of duration and sprint biking workouts in terms of volume. When disciplines analyzed the durations of weekly training sessions, it was found that swimming accounted for approximately 360 minutes (Long: 204.
... This growth is mirrored in Australia, where triathlon events attract varied participants, from recreational to elite competitors (Triathlon Australia, n.d.). The sport's multidisciplinary nature poses unique load prescription and management challenges for coaches, making it a sport that attracts interest within the sports science community (Knechtle et al., 2015;Millet et al., 2011;Vleck et al., 2014). Central to the development and success of triathletes is the coaching role. ...
Introduction: This study uses an interpretivist approach to examine and understand triathlon coaching practices as they apply to age group (recreational, nonprofessional) athletes in Australia. It explores how coaches utilize the training load process— prescription, measurement, monitoring, and management—and aspects influencing individual coaching approaches, including contextual factors. Methods: Eight Australian triathlon coaches were interviewed using semistructured interviews. Interviews were transcribed verbatim, then coded and analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis. Results: Four themes emerged: “Coaching knowledge and training load process,” “Coaching technology-integrated practice,” “Coaches’ interpretation of life load management,” and “Coach–athlete relationship dynamics.” These themes reveal how coaches adapt their practices based on personal experiences, contextual factors, and interactions with athletes, reflecting the complexity of triathlon coaching and highlighting coaches’ continuous learning, technology integration, athlete life load awareness, and communication competency. Discussion: These themes influence coaches’ perceptions of their relationships with their athletes and coaching decisions. Coaches’ knowledge, unique experiences, perspectives, and personal contexts are central to their practice. In deploying their practices and training load processes, coaches must respond to the athletes’ goals, preferences, and life circumstances. Conclusion: In practical terms, understanding these influences will enable coaches to better identify and manage the factors shaping their decisions, leading to more effective and adaptable training strategies. Coaches are then positioned to place greater value in their unique historical contexts but also be aware of the potential biases they may introduce.
... It is a very demanding and complex discipline, as it combines three different modalities: swimming, cycling, and running; therefore, it requires a high degree of physical endurance, technical-tactical skills, and mental strength. For this reason, psychosocial characteristics are particularly important, as triathletes have to face long distances, adverse conditions, and situations of extreme physical and mental fatigue [16], and they have to possess adaptability, flexibility, and specific psychological skills to effectively resolve the different transitions from one discipline to another [17]. ...
The present study aims to analyze the psychological characteristics associated with the performance of amateur athletes, exploring their relationships with key variables such as resilience, harmonious and obsessive passion, and perception of discomfort. The main objective is to establish the relationship between psychological characteristics and each of the variables used (resilience, personal competence, and acceptance of self and life), and to consider whether these are related to passion (harmonious and obsessive) through a structural equation analysis. The sample was composed of 110 persons: 87 adults (22 females, mean age 40.7 ± 9.1 years; 65 males, mean age in years 42.1 ± 11.9) and 23 adolescents (16 females, mean age 14.8 ± 1.3 years; 7 males, mean age 15.3 ± 2.1 years). Psychological characteristics were assessed using the Psychological Characteristics Related to Performance (CPRD) questionnaire, passion using the Passion Scale instrument, and resilience using the Resilience Scale (RS-14) questionnaire. The analyses were based on a structural equation model analysis (PLS-SEM). The results showed adequate coefficients of determination (R index2) and Stone–Geisser predictive relevance (Q2) for the personal competence resilience factors (R2 = 0.517; Q2 = 0.218) and acceptance of self and life (R2 =.415; Q2 = 0.231), as well as for the passion dimensions harmonious passion (R2 = 0.357; Q2 = 0.168) and obsessive passion (R2 = 0.085; Q2 = 0.034). In conclusion, a close relationship was demonstrated between psychological characteristics related to sports performance and the variables of resilience and passion (both harmonious and obsessive). In particular, it was confirmed that mental skills and stress management are linked to the dimensions of resilience, and these dimensions influence both types of passion. In addition, team cohesion and personal competence also play a crucial role in the development of passion, highlighting the importance of these factors in the assessment of sports performance and influencing the well-being of amateur athletes in their personal and sports development.
... Instead, the key difference between triathlons and running races is the sequential nature of the three disciplines (swim, bike, run) in a triathlon [4]. This multi-modal aspect introduces additional challenges compared to a single running event, which can affect hydration status and kidney function differently than a sustained running effort [6,7]. ...
... Hydration status, as indicated by urine specific gravity, is crucial for maintaining performance and preventing heat-related illnesses in endurance events [15,18]. The unique combination of three disciplines in triathlons, each with different thermoregulatory demands, makes understanding hydration dynamics in these events particularly important [4,6,7]. Additionally, dehydration can exacerbate exercise-induced proteinuria [17], creating a potential interplay between these two factors that warrants investigation in the context of short-distance triathlons. ...
Background/Objectives: Endurance triathlons impose substantial physiological stress, yet the effects of short-course formats remain relatively unexplored. This preliminary study presents novel findings on proteinuria and hydration levels in well-trained triathletes. Methods: 27 participants (41.9 ± 7.4 years) who completed a sprint triathlon consisting of a 1500 m swim, 26 km cycle, and 8 km run. Urine samples were collected before and after the race. Results: Our results revealed a significant increase in post-race proteinuria cases from four to nine (p = 0.03) and the first reported case of post-race urobilinuria and ketoacidosis in this context. Additionally, pre-race glucosuria, present in nine cases, decreased to three post-race. Hematuria cases decreased from six to two (p = 0.13) and pre-race leukocyturia resolved post-race. There was a significant increase in urine specific gravity (from 1.018 to 1.023, p = 0.03), indicating dehydration. Conclusions: Short-course triathlons significantly induced post-race proteinuria, urobilinuria, and dehydration, highlighting the substantial physiological stress on kidney function and hydration status despite the shorter distances. These findings underscore the importance of monitoring urinary biomarkers and hydration levels in athletes before and after competition.
... The sport appears to be relatively safe for those of such athletes who are well trained and well prepared [2,3], assuming that high risk individuals have undertaken prior health screening. What we know thus far regarding the extent, severity, and risk factors for triathlon injury has been extensively reviewed [3,4,5]. A consistent finding across the studies to date is that less triathletes sustain traumatic injuries, i.e., injuries that are caused by a hazard encounter such as falling and/or either being hit by or hitting an obstacle, than are affected by so-called overuse injuries (without a specific, identifiable cause). ...
... They may do so either within the same or (paying insufficient attention to the effect of crosstraining) in other disciplines to that in which the injury was first noted [6]. Such behaviour is likely to negatively impact both the time that it takes for the athlete to achieve "return to play," and the likelihood of injury recurrence [4]. Given the limitations of the existing literature, we cannot say with certainty what the impact of hip fracturesrelative to that of the other most sustained traumatic, cycling related, injuries-is in triathletes. ...
This case report describes the integrated rehabilitation and strength and conditioning approach that was adopted after the diagnosis of a fracture of the inferior pubic ramus, as well as a fracture to the lateral aspect of the superior pubic ramus, in a semi-professional triathlete and cyclist. The male athlete also incurred a minimal displacement of the medial acetabular, fracture of the superolateral acetabular and a fracture of the left sacral ala. Bleeding into both adductor muscles, and sacroiliac joint dysfunction were also diagnosed. The athlete suffered these injuries within a standard field-based training routine. No surgery was performed on the athlete. He was prescribed a progressive, yet structured, rehabilitation and strength and conditioning program by an allied health team. The program was adhered to by the athlete for four months. The strength and conditioning program included adaptations in the execution of most of the prescribed exercises. It required the athlete to initially perform the exercises twice weekly. At seven weeks post fracture, the athlete's weight bearing capabilities were increased to partial weight bearing on the injured side. Over the following month a gradual increase in the athlete´s level of strength and conditioning, as he performed both upper and lower body isometric exercises, occurred. These exercises were subsequently followed up with various isotonic exercises. The athlete reported no pain when he returned to spin cycling. On clinical follow-up, three months post-accident, a healing fracture was confirmed via radiographs of the athlete´s pelvis. Bone healing was assumed, on review, when no evidence of a fracture gap was obtained.
... Multidisciplinary sports such as triathlon require intentional planning of weekly training sessions for three different sports [1,2]. To be adequately prepared for endurance events of this nature, the volume of training is significant [3]; hence, monitoring and reviewing training loads is crucial to enhance training adaptations and consequent performance [4][5][6]. Enhancing training adaptations requires combining adequate types, intensity levels, and volumes of training stimuli interspersed with effective recovery periods [7]. ...
Multidisciplinary sports like triathlons require combining training for three different sports, and it is unclear how triathlon coaches manage this. During a 10-week period, we provided four age-group triathlon coaches with summary reports of the training completed by their athletes (n = 10) in the previous week. Coaches were then asked if the information provided to them was used to inform training prescription for the following week. The information provided to coaches included relative acute training load (rATL) and training stress scores (TSSs). Weekly fluctuations in rATL of >10% (spikes) were 83% (swim), 74% (bike) and 87% (run). Coaches adapted training loads for the upcoming week in 25% of all rATLs reported, and only 5% (swim), 33% (bike) and 9% (run) of the adjusted loads avoided spikes. Consequently, there were 22 single-discipline acute training load spikes vs. 14 spikes when combining all three disciplines. Only 1.5% of training was lost to injury, mostly after a large running-based training load spike (>30%). Coaches largely overlooked the information provided in the report when prescribing exercise for the following week, and when adjusted, it failed to bring weekly load variability <10%.
... Currently, several race distances are recognized, such as Sprint distance, Olympic distance, Half distance, and Full distance. The dedication to training in three disciplines simultaneously, namely swimming, cycling and running, entails that triathletes are required to invest a greater number of hours in sport-specific preparation in comparison to those engaged in single-sport activities [1,2,3,5]. Despite this additional investment, the distinctive physiological challenge associated with the integration of three distinct modes of exercise into a single event represents a fundamental aspect that has contributed to the past, present and future popularity of the triathlon [6,8]. ...
... The displacement of blood into the thoracic vasculature (secondary to the hydrostatic pressure gradient) results in increased venous return, a 60% increase in central blood volume, increased cardiac preload, a concomitant increase in stroke volume of approximately 35%, and a decrease in heart rate secondary to baroreceptor stimulation [3,6,19]. It is recommended that aerobic exercise be incorporated into a cardioprotective lifestyle intervention to reduce cardiovascular mortality in both sexes and across the lifespan [20,21]. ...
... During immersion, an increase in cardiac minute volume is distributed preferentially to the skin and muscles, resulting in a 225% increase in muscle blood flow and potentially increased oxygen delivery to active muscles [3,19]. The impact of buoyancy on the musculoskeletal system is also noteworthy, as it serves to mitigate ground reaction forces, thereby reducing compressive stresses in the joints [25]. ...
Introduction: A triathlon is a multisport event comprising three individual disciplines: swimming, cycling and running. The event is structured around two transition periods, during which competitors change from one mode of transportation to another. The multidisciplinary nature of triathlon places an exceptional physiological burden on athletes, with modifications to haemodynamic, biochemical, cardiorespiratory and metabolic parameters. Participation in triathlon has been linked with a number of benefits, including improved endurance, body toning and enhanced laboratory results. However, this is not an exhaustive list. Based on the evidence currently available, we will attempt to demonstrate that triathlon and its constituent activities represent an optimal approach for enhancing well-being. Aim of the study: The aim of this study is to demonstrate the impact of swimming, cycling and running on specific organ systems, with a particular emphasis on the components of a triathlon. In the course of our research, we have drawn upon the findings of numerous previous studies, as referenced in the bibliography. Every effort has been made to organize and standardize this knowledge.
... A professional triathlete racing in the elite category may average weekly training volumes of 15-27 h over the course of a full season [2,3]. Triathlon may present lower sport-related injury (SI) incidence than several other risk or contact sports [4], but high training loads can result in frequent overuse injuries (OIs) or traumatic injuries (TIs) [5][6][7]. Previous studies have indicated that injury prevalence during the competition phase ranges from 2% to 15% [8]. Vleck et al. [9] showed that the most common types of SIs among high-level triathletes are OIs (with 72% reporting at least one) followed by TIs (with 43% of athletes reporting at least one). ...
... Vleck et al. [9] showed that the most common types of SIs among high-level triathletes are OIs (with 72% reporting at least one) followed by TIs (with 43% of athletes reporting at least one). Moreover, the most frequent anatomical location of injuries is in the lower limbs [7,10]. This is due to the high impact of the run, the exercise mode in which most injuries occur [7]. ...
... Moreover, the most frequent anatomical location of injuries is in the lower limbs [7,10]. This is due to the high impact of the run, the exercise mode in which most injuries occur [7]. ...
1) Background: Studies on injury prevention programs are lacking for triathletes. The aim of the present study was to describe the results of a holistic (injury) training prevention program (HITP), based on training load control and strength training, in elite triathletes. (2) Methods: The study was conducted over 2021-2023 and involved 18 males and 10 females from the same training group. The HITP itself included various methods of fatigue monitoring, strength training focused on the prevention of overuse injuries (OIs), cycling skills training, and recovery strategies. The total number and type of injuries that were sustained, subsequent training/competition absence time, and injury incidence were determined. (3) Results: Twenty-four injuries were recorded over all three seasons, i.e., 0.65 injuries per 1000 h of training and competition exposure. Fourteen injuries were traumatic injuries (TIs) and ten were OIs. Of the OIs, four were of minimal severity, two were mild, three were moderate, and one was severe (accounting for 1-3, 4-7, 8-28, and >28 days of training absenteeism, respectively). A total of 46.4% of the participants did not present any type of injury and 71,4% did not incur any OIs. Average absenteeism was 17.3 days per injury. (4) Conclusions: The HITP design and implementation resulted in low OI and severe injury incidence. Due to their unpredictable nature, the number of TIs was not reduced. The TIs were suffered more frequently by men. Women are more likely to suffer from OIs, so it is particularly important to prevent OIs in women.
... The present study showed that female amateur athletes presented training characteristics very similar (hours per week) as previously reported to amateur triathles (13 h/week) 18 ; however, lower than elite triathles (20 h/week). 19 Regards to bone status, absolute BMD for triathletes was lower than for nonactive women. ...
Purpose
Physical inactivity is considered an important risk factor for osteoporosis, however, some athletes performing extremely high training volumes can also develop bone mass loss. Moreover, the effect of total body mass or body surface area on bone mineral density remains controversial. Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare the absolute bone mineral density and bone mineral density adjusted to body surface area between amateur triathletes and nonactive women.
Methods
Forty-two healthy women (23 amateur triathletes and 19 nonactive individuals) were evaluated for body composition using a dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry system.
Results
Compared to nonactive women, amateur triathletes exhibited lower body mass index (p < 0.001), lower bone mineral density (p < 0.001), and body surface area (p < 0.001). However, bone mineral density adjusted by body surface area in the triathletes was higher than in the nonactive women (p = 0.03).
Conclusion
These findings showed that amateur triathles presented lower absolute bone mineral density, but higher bone mineral density adjusted to body surface area. Future studies are recommended to identify if the higher bone mineral density adjusted to body surface area are associated with a lower bone fragility.