Figure 1 - uploaded by Aswardi Nasution
Content may be subject to copyright.

Ceratocystis wilt and canker disease symptoms on Acacia mangium. External discolouration (a); internal discolouration (b, c); canker on stem (d); gummosis (e); fermented exudate with fruity odours (f); frass indicating activity of boring insects (g); and yellowing leaves and dieback of tree (h) (Photos: Aswardi Nasution 2017)
Source publication
Ceratocystis wilt and canker disease has severely compromised the profitability of Acacia mangium plantations in Southeast Asia. The focus of this review is on Ceratocystis wilt and canker disease in Acacia trees. Its aim is to synthesise information about this fungal pathogen that can be used to inform development of suitable disease-control strat...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... the cambium and inner bark; killing these tissues causes a canker (Kile 1993;Harrington 2013). In Acacias, Ceratocystis species cause vascular stain, canker on the stem and eventually wilting. Once infected, the symptoms are first expressed as black or red lesions on the bark, blackened streaks within vascular tissue or sapwood discolouration (Fig. 1). Cankers on the stem and cracked or sunken bark above cankers emerge as further symptoms. This is followed with yellowing of the leaves, wilting, and death of the tree due to lack of nutrient supply ( Roux et al. 2001b;Tarigan et al. 2011a;Brawner et al. 2015). The foam or fermentation exudate of yeasts or bacteria also often emerge ...
Context 2
... is followed with yellowing of the leaves, wilting, and death of the tree due to lack of nutrient supply ( Roux et al. 2001b;Tarigan et al. 2011a;Brawner et al. 2015). The foam or fermentation exudate of yeasts or bacteria also often emerge from the lesions or from entrance holes made by stem borer or fungal feeding insects near to stem cankers (Fig. 1). In particular, this exudate attracts fungivorous nitidulid beetles (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae) which are associated with fungal dispersal ( Brawner et al. ...
Citations
... The high number of infected wild Acacia plants near C. sempervirens may facilitate the transmission of Ceratocystis disease (Muslim et al. 2022). Notably, no wounds from wild vertebrates like squirrels or macaques, previously reported as significant disease spreaders, were observed in the field (Nasution et al. 2019;Suwandi et al. 2021). In conclusion, C. fimbriata was found to be associated with canker and wilt disease in C. sempervirens in Indonesia. ...
Pratama R, Suwandi S, Muslim A, Mulawarman. 2025. Diversity of Ceratocystis fimbriata causing canker and wilt disease on Cupressus sempervirens (Italian cypress) in Indonesia. Biodiversitas 26: 278-287. In 2022-2023, new diseases were observed on Cupressus sempervirens in South Sumatra, Indonesia, with the disease incidence increasing from 17.6% to 26.5% in 2023. Initial symptoms, included stem cankers, black lesions on sapwood and vascular tissue, discoloration and partial wilting of leaves, and eventual complete drying, leading to plant death. The objective of this study was to isolate and identify the fungal pathogen causing wilt disease in C. sempervirens trees using morphological characterization and DNA sequencing. In 2022-2023, a disease survey was conducted in six districts of South Sumatra. The results showed that six out of ten locations were infected, with disease incidence ranging from 4.1% to 17.6% in 2022, increasing to 2% to 26.5% in 2023. Pathogen identification employed a polyphasic approach, combining morphological and molecular characteristics from specific genomic regions (the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and β-tubulin). Both the morphological features (including a globose base with a long neck-ended tip with ostiolar hyphae, cylindrical conidia, and hat-shaped ascospores) and phylogenetic analysis identified the isolates as Ceratocystis fimbriata. ITS gene sequences indicated that all the isolates belonged to the ITS5 haplotype. In pathogenicity test, pathogen caused mortality in C. sempervirens, Acacia mangium, and Artocarpus heterophyllus plants. The implications of these findings are significant, as they can potentially lead to the development of effective control measures. To our knowledge, this is the first report of Ceratocystis spp. causing wilt disease on C. sempervirens in South Sumatra.
... Serious diseases related to fungi have been reported in this species: root-rot disease caused by the Ganoderma species (Francis et al. 2014), wilt and canker diseases caused by a Ceratocystis species Nasution et al. 2019), and heart-rot disease caused by white-rot hymenomycetes . For example, the percentage of heartrot in A. mangium logs in five regions of Indonesia was about 5 %-47 % ( Barry et al. 2004). ...
To evaluate the inheritance of natural durability of Acacia mangium Willd., wood-color parameters ( Y [lightness], x [red to green], and y [yellow to blue]), mass loss by a white-rot fungus ( Trametes versicolor ) and brown-rot fungus ( Fomitopsis palustris ), and three different extracts (methanol extract, total phenol, and total flavanol content) were measured using the inner and outer heartwood of 10-year-old trees from 20 half-sib families in the third-generation A. mangium in Indonesia. The broad-sense heritability ( H ² ) values were moderate to high for the wood-color parameters and mass loss by white- and brown-rot fungi ( H ² = 0.210–0.851) and low to moderate for three different extracts ( H ² = 0.000–0.576). Significant negative phenotypic correlations were found between the three different extracts and mass loss by T. versicolor and F. palustris . In addition, negative correlations were found between the wood-color parameters and three different extracts. Similar results were found between the total phenol content and y and between the total flavanol content and Y in genetic correlations. Therefore, A. mangium families with lower Y and y in heartwood could produce progenies with higher total phenol and total flavanol content, leading to higher natural decay resistance.
... The pathogen colonizes the roots and the main stems of host plants, inducing xylem dysfunction and wilt symptoms on infected fig trees, but also kills the cambium and bark tissues, resulting in canker symptoms (Tsopelas et al. 2021). Therefore, in light of all the studies conducted worldwide on Ceratocystis diseases, it is preferable to refer to it as "canker-wilt" disease (Habib et al. 2023;Nasution et al. 2019;Tsopelas et al. 2017Tsopelas et al. , 2021. ...
Field surveys conducted during 2021 and 2022 in Western Sicily, Italy, revealed the presence of common fig trees severely affected by trunk and crown root canker and bark cracking. Moreover, in conjunction with the symptomatic tissues, the same surveyed plants showed the presence of bark beetle holes and internal wood galleries. The predominant beetle Criphalus dilutus was previously reported attacking figs in Sicily. Phylogenetic analyses based on multi-locus DNA data showed the presence of different fungal taxa associated with disease symptoms, including Botryosphaeria dothidea, Ceratocystis ficicola, Diaporthe foeniculina, Neocosmospora bostrycoides, N. perseae and Neofusicoccum luteum. Pathogenicity tests conducted on potted fig plants showed that all the species were pathogenic to fig, with C. ficicola and Neocosmospora spp. as the most aggressive fungal species. Moreover, isolations conducted from the bodies of emerging adult insects recovered from disease samples confirmed the presence of C. ficicola and Neocosmospora spp., suggesting the potential involvement of C. dilutus in their dissemination.
... Some could turn into invasive species, thereby leading to negative effects on biodiversity within, as well as outside plantations (Osunkoya et al. 2005). Furthermore, many second and third generation Acacia mangium plantations in Malaysia and Indonesia are suffering from severe pathogen attacks, resulting in heavily reduced outputs (Harwood and Nambiar 2014a;Nasution et al. 2019) and highligting a great need to diversify the portfolio of plantation species. ...
Demand for tropical timber is expected to rise due to an increased global need for sustainable renewable materials. However, sustainable tropical timber production remains a challenge for the global wood product supply chain, especially for high-value tropical hardwoods. Restoration of degraded lands through enrichment planting of native hardwood species could provide a solution, but the financial viability of using native tropical tree species remains largely unknown. We evaluated the financial viability of 22 hardwood tree species native to northern Borneo in enrichment plantings of a degraded forest in Sabah, Malaysia. We investigated how the species’ financial value, expressed as an internal rate of return (IRR) based on land expectation value, varied with their functional trait composition. We found that high financial value was positively correlated with trait values associated with a conservative growth strategy, i.e., financial value was negatively correlated with leaf calcium, magnesium, and nitrogen content, as well as with leaf pH and specific leaf area. Trees with these traits showed a high IRR, partly explained by relatively fast growth and high survival rates. For the most economically promising species, Shorea macrophylla, we estimated that enrichment planting for forest restoration could reach IRRs up to 7.8%. Our results showed that enrichment planting for high-value hardwood production in degraded forests can be financially viable, with variation among species, and that various traits associated with a more conservative growth strategy were linked to high financial value.
... The findings from observations in kiwifruit orchards suggest that infections are primarily initiated through the roots due to the presence of C. fimbriata in the soil (Piveta et al. 2016). Nevertheless, human activities in orchards, such as pruning, can also create wounds that serve as entry points for the pathogen to penetrate the hosts (Harrington 2013, Brawner et al. 2015, Nasution et al. 2019. Pruning is a common practice in commercial kiwifruit vines to improve yield and fruit quality (KVH 2019). ...
... In these cases, disinfestation of pruning tools and equipment becomes crucial, as the pathogen can mechanically spread from diseased plants to healthy plants through pruning tools (SA Cassol, unpublished data). Furthermore, C. fimbriata spores can also be dispersed by wind, rain, and insects in orchards (Ferreira et al. 2011, Harrington 2013, Nasution et al. 2019. For this reason, protection of fresh pruning wounds with the application of fungicides or other protective barriers (Brown et al. 2021, Ayres et al. 2022, can potentially be an effective control strategy against C. fimbriata if incorporated into integrated disease management. ...
Ceratocystis wilt, caused by Ceratocystis fimbriata, is the primary disease affecting kiwifruit (Actinidia spp.) and a major constraint for its cultivation and expansion in Brazil. Additionally, the disease poses a threat to other major kiwifruit-producing countries, such as China, Chile, New Zealand, and Italy, where the disease has not been reported on kiwifruit vines yet. In kiwifruit vines, the infection generally initiates through the roots, but pruning wounds can also serve as an entry point for the pathogen. Currently, there is a dearth of proven effective strategies for controlling this disease, and there is no information on the effectiveness of fungicides for preventing C. fimbriata infection on kiwifruit. In the present study, we evaluated the efficacy of four fungicides: metalaxyl + mancozeb, boscalide + cresoxim-methyl, pyraclostrobin, and copper hydroxide, against C. fimbriata isolates. We found that metalaxyl + mancozeb and pyraclostrobin were the most effective in inhibiting mycelial growth in vitro. However, when evaluating these fungicides as pruning wound protectors in two kiwifruit cultivars, these fungicides were not effective, in the method tested. The results found in the in vitro assays can guide the development of chemical control of Ceratocystis wilt in kiwifruit. Furthermore, as none of the fungicides tested here were effective in protecting pruning wounds against C. fimbriata infection in kiwifruit vines, other active ingredients or application methods must be evaluated in upcoming studies.
... However, exotic tree plantations, compared to natural forests, often support less biodiversity (Barlow et al. 2007) and soil carbon stocks (Guillaume et al. 2018). Furthermore, many Acacia mangium plantations in Southeast Asia are affected by pathogens that heavily reduces production (Harwood and Nambiar 2014a;Nasution et al. 2019) and highlights a need to expand the roster of species used in plantations. ...
... Some could turn into invasive species, thereby leading to negative effects on biodiversity within, as well as outside plantations (Osunkoya et al. 2005). Furthermore, many second and third generation Acacia mangium plantations in Malaysia and Indonesia are suffering from severe pathogen attacks, resulting in heavily reduced outputs (Harwood and Nambiar 2014a;Nasution et al. 2019) and highligting a great need to diversify the portfolio of plantation species. ...
Forests are key sources of renewable materials needed to transition into a bio-based economy free from fossil-based resources. Tropical forests are especially important due to their large land area and high growth potential. However, tropical forests are under pressure from both climate and land-use changes that reduce ecosystem function. As a response, forest restoration efforts have increased and key aspects to ensure their success include tree species selection and understanding how management alters forested landscapes. In this thesis, I discuss current framing of tropical forest categorization and present a conceptual model that emphasizes management-driven transitions of forests between states (Paper I). Furthermore, I explore how functional-trait variation in tree species native to Borneo correlates with different values and ecosystem services that restoration may need to consider to support a bio-based economy, specifically financial potential (Paper II), conservation of beetle diversity (Paper III), and leaf litter decomposition in a changing climate (Paper IV). Financial potential was found to be linked with low leaf-nutrient content, pH, and specific leaf area, and harvesting of native tree species grown using restoration methods were found to be a potentially viable management option (Paper II). Specific leaf area and leaf area were important in supporting total beetle diversity, but predators and fungivores were related to separate suites of traits (Paper III). Finally, an interactive effect between precipitation frequency (rarely reported) and volume on mass loss was identified, where reductions in either variable lowered mass loss from decomposition (Paper IV). While high nutrient content and pH, and low lignin and tannin content, were correlated with high mass loss, no change in trait-decomposition links between climate scenarios was found. This thesis concludes that while it seems possible to find tree species with disproportionately high ecosystem value, no single trait combination can provide every ecosystem service. Thus, promoting tree species with complementary trait compositions should be prioritized.
... Decreases in use were tied to decreases in extent by some observers. For example, declines in extent were due to pathogens for A. mangium in South-East Asia and A. mearnsii in some parts of South Africa (also see Nasution et al., 2019). A decrease in use of A. dealbata and A. melanoxylon in Spain was attributed to their use being declared illegal. ...
... Ceratocystis wilt, caused by Ceratocystis fimbriata (s.l.), is a vascular disease that causes wilt, root rot and canker on a wide range of economically important forest and agricultural hosts around the world (Weber and Stahmann 1964, Engelbrecht et al. 2007, Tarigan et al. 2011, Firmino et al. 2012, Oliveira et al. 2015, Silva et al. 2017, Fortini et al. 2019, Nasution et al. 2019. In 2010, C. fimbriata was first reported causing disease in kiwifruit vines, in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (Sonego et al. 2010). ...
... However, human activities in orchards, such as pruning, can also create wounds that serve as infection points for the pathogen to penetrate the hosts (Harrington 2013, Nasution et al. 2019). ...
... In these cases, disinfestation of pruning tools and equipment becomes important, since the pathogen can spread from diseased to healthy plants through infested pruning tools (Harrington 2013). Furthermore, C. fimbriata spores can also be dispersed by wind, rain and insects in orchards (Ferreira et al. 2011, Harrington 2013, Nasution et al. 2019. For this reason, protection of fresh pruning wounds with the application of fungicides or other protective barriers (Brown et al. 2021, Ayres et al. 2022, can potentially be an effective control strategy against C. fimbriata if incorporated into integrated disease management. ...
Ceratocystis wilt, caused by Ceratocystis fimbriata , is the primary disease affecting kiwifruit ( Actinidia spp. ) and a major constraint for its cultivation and expansion in Brazil. Additionally, it poses a potential threat to other major kiwifruit-producing countries, such as China, New Zealand and Italy, where the disease has not reported on kiwifruit yet. In kiwifruit vines, the infection generally initiates through the roots, but pruning wounds can also serve as an entry point for the pathogen. Currently, there is a dearth of proven effective strategies for controlling this disease, and there is no information on the effectiveness of fungicides for preventing the disease. In the present study, we evaluated the efficacy of four fungicides: metalaxyl + mancozeb, boscalide + cresoxim-methyl, pyraclostrobin, and copper hydroxide, against C. fimbriata isolates. We found that metalaxyl + mancozeb and pyraclostrobin were the most effective in inhibiting mycelial growth in vitro. However, when evaluated as wound pruning protectors in two kiwifruit cultivars, these fungicides were not effective. The results found in the in vitro assays can serve as guides for the development of chemical control of Ceratocystis wilt in kiwifruit. Furthermore, as none of the fungicides tested here were effective in protecting pruning wounds against C. fimbriata infection in kiwifruit vines, it is interesting that other active ingredients or application methods are evaluated in further studies.
... Determine key pests occurring on eucalypts and acacias in the region; Report on their distribution and impact on plantation health and growth; Develop systems and networks that can form the basis for ongoing pest assessment in the region Floyd 1999 1996 (Tarigan et al. 2011;Nasution et al. 2019). In the Indonesian pulp and paper industry, the growth rates of Acacia mangium Willd. ...
... Where the pathogenic species are microscopic, identification often requires DNA screening methods to isolate specific species of concern among wider genus-level species presence (see, for example, Coetzee et al. 2011). This work acts to identify species but also publishes protocols to assist in diagnostics, particularly those that are renamed and reclassified, as in the case of Ceratocystis taxonomy (Nasution et al. 2019). ...
... The risk of invasions of non-native insects is heightened by leaky borders and inadequate quarantine functions common to developing countries (Hurley et al. 2017). Another consideration in biosecurity is that insects and diseases can switch hosts, as was the case when Ceratocystis moved from acacia plantings to eucalypt plantings (Nasution et al. 2019). There is also the potential for invasive species to move from planted to native forests. ...
There are over 7 million ha of eucalypt and acacia plantations in Southeast Asia (SE Asia), comprising both corporate and smallholder plantings. These plantations contribute significantly to national and regional economies and provide diverse ecosystem services. Increased trade, the global movement of people, and a changing climate increase the threat of invasive plantation pests in SE Asia. Here, we review the history of forest biosecurity research in SE Asia to determine what is needed now for the implementation of sustainable biosecurity management systems. Historically, substantial Australian aid funding has been directed at the development of eucalypt and acacia plantations in the region. Attention has been increasing on forest health and biosecurity research since the 1990s, driven by development of the timber plantation estate and the emergence of diseases such as Ceratocystis and insect pests such as Leptocybe invasa. The research agenda has focused on key insect pest and disease taxa and on understanding their biology, topical treatments, breeding responses and land-use planning approaches as means for control and management. We find there is a need for more systemic approaches, including surveillance and pre-emptive strategies, to strengthen timber plantation biosecurity. Greater consideration of socioeconomic and sociocultural contexts will be required to address these challenges. Developing new biosecurity capacity to better detect, and coordinate responses to, forest pest incursions can minimise the potential impacts of invasive pests.
... Despite its various commercial applications, A. mangium is susceptible to the infection of the ascomycetous pathogen, Ceratocystis fimbriata, which infects the wounds of A. mangium trees in plantations, and causes the Ceratocystis wilt disease (Kile, 1993;Roux and Wingfield, 2009;Tarigan et al., 2011;Brawner et al., 2015). Wounded tree caused by humans, other mammals including monkeys, elephants, squirrels or boring insects, and others factor such as wind, are likely to increase the disease spreading and tree mortality as the wound become the entrance for this Ceratocystis species to invade (Nasution et al., 2019). In Malaysia at the year of 2011, a severe case which was the first report of this disease infected approximately 40% of A. mangium trees in plantation at Tawau, Sabah. ...
... But there were several actions that commonly are used by the plantation managers to prevent the infection of this disease. As Ceratocystis species penetrate and invade the trees by wounds, this problems can be prevent by avoid the occurance of wound itself (Kile, 1993;Harrington, 2013;Nasution et al., 2019). Silviculture practice should be done in correct way and cautions. ...
... Problems involved with wildlife in plantation areas also are count on in management such as establishment of wildlife management plan to overcome the conflicts occurred (Farid et al., 2018). Chemical control is one of application they used to delay the symptoms of the disease development and help the infected trees to live longer for at least 2 years (Blaedow, 2009;Nasution et al., 2019). Although the use of chemical fungicides are more preferred due to their rapid action, they are often associated with high production and application costs, human health hazards, restriction by domestic and international regulatory limits, trade bans, residual effects, environmental pollution, resistance development in pests, and potential elimination of beneficial natural enemies of the targeted pests (Yazid et al., 2020). ...
Acacia mangium is an important wood for commercial products especially pulp and medium-density fibreboard. However, it is susceptible to Ceratocystis fimbriata infection, leading to Ceratocystis wilt. Therefore, the present work aimed to (i) establish the diversity of endophytic fungi in different plant parts of A. mangium ,and (ii) evaluate the antifungal potentials of the isolated and identified endophytic fungi against C. fimbriata . Endophytic fungal identification was conducted by PCR amplification and sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1) and ITS4 regions of nuclear ribosomal DNA. A total of 66 endophytic fungi were successfully isolated from different parts of A. mangium ; leaf (21), stem (13), petiole (12), root (9), flower (6), and fruit (5). The endophytic fungal isolates belonged to Ascomycota (95.5%) and Zygomycota (4.5%). For Ascomycota 13 genera were identified: Trichoderma (28.6%), Nigrospora (28.6%), Pestalotiopsis (12.7%), Lasiodiplodia (9.5%), Aspergillus (6.3%), Sordariomycetes (3%), and Neopestalotiopsis , Pseudopestalotiopsis , Eutiarosporella , Curvularia , Fusarium , Penicillium , and Hypoxylon each with a single isolate. For Zygomycota, only Blakeslea sp. (5%) was isolated. Against C. fimbriata , Trichoderma koningiopsis (AC 1S) from stem, Nigrospora oryzae (AC 7L) from leaf, Nigrospora sphaerica (AC 3F) from the flower, Lasiodiplodia sp. (AC 2 U) from fruit, Nigrospora sphaerica (AC 4P) from petiole, and Trichoderma sp. (AC 9R) from root exhibited strong inhibition for C. fimbriata between 58.33 to 69.23%. Thus, it can be concluded that certain endophytic fungi of A. mangium have the potential to be harnessed as anti-Ceratocystis agent in future biotechnological applications.