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The 2D distinct element method was used to investigate the propagation of fault rupture traces through overlying sand during reverse faulting along a range of dip angles and at different vertical throws. Calibrated micromechanical material parameters were used in the numerical simulations, which were validated through a comparison of the simulation...
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... and (15), respectively. Finally, the normalized affected width, x affected , and the affected width, L affected , are given as Table 4 lists the calculated values of x affected at different dip angles and different throw ratios. Fig. 27 shows the relationship between the normalized affected width and the dip angle as a function of the throw ratio. ...
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Citations
... The vulnerability of engineering structures crossing active faults has been studied after two devastating earthquakes in 1999, i.e., the Mw 7.4 İzmit earthquake in Turkey and Mw 7.6 Chi-Chi earthquake in Taiwan (e.g., Bird and Bommer 2004;Faccioli et al. 2008;Pamuk et al. 2005). It has been demonstrated that fault location, fault angle, and sense and magnitude of fault slip are the main factors affecting the characteristics of deformation zones (e.g., Chang et al. 2015). In recent years, numerical simulation based on not only continuum analysis (Anastasopoulos and Gazetas 2007;Agalianos et al. 2019;Fadaee et al. 2020), but also particle-based analysis Bray 2019a, 2019b;Li et al. 2019;Liu et al. 2020;Lin et al. 2021) has been demonstrated as a reliable tool for studying the mechanical behavior of the fault-soil-structure systems. ...
... Such a phenomenon is extremely important for precisely locating the fault surface traces. Another important aspect is the effect of the dip angles of active faults, in particular, at the shallow depth of hundreds of meters, which affect the patterns of deformation and width ratio of deformation zone in hanging wall to the one in the footwall while transient fault slip occurs (Huang 2006;Chang et al. 2015). For example, based on an elastic-plastic model of fault slip propagation for formation of deformation zones , the ratios of hanging wall to footwall deformation zone width for strike-slip faults are 6, 3, and 1 for fault angles of 45°, 60° and 90°, respectively. ...
The precise position and geometry of a fault and the recognition of contemporary active strands are pivotal elements for formulating regulations for earthquake fault zones and fault setbacks. The western frontal escarpment toe of the Coastal Range in Tapo, eastern Taiwan is commonly considered as the plausible location of the N18°E-trending, east-dipping Chihshang creeping seismogenic fault. Frontal collapse and flattening of reverse faulting, in addition to fluviation and landslide have complicated the process for defining the Chihshang fault configuration. We used a multidisciplinary approach, combining site investigation, geological core analysis and correlation, resistivity prospecting, and inclinometer monitoring, to illuminate the subsurface structure and deformation of the leading edge of the Chihshang fault at Tapo Elementary School. We found that (1) the Chihshang main fault is a contact of alluvium deposits and the mudstone of Lichi mélange, and has a dip angle of approximately 77° within the resistivity gradation zone 55 m east of the toe of the geomorphic escarpment; (2) it has a 2-year cumulative horizontal displacement of 20.7 mm northwestward and continuously creeps without seasonal variation; and (3) the active deformation on the escarpment results from a combined effect of fault creeping and slow gravity sliding of the mass which is steadily supplied by the Chihshang reserve faulting. A mechanism of faulting-relay landsliding is proposed to understand the active deformation on the escarpment. Great caution is needed in the interpretation of the aseismic surface ruptures along the inferred trace of reverse creeping faults as fault branching.
Graphical Abstract
... Ruptures due to seismic loadings may interact with underground and surface structures and cause damage to buildings, bridges, dams, and underground structures such as tunnels and pipelines [1][2][3][4][5]. There are two main categories of seismic damages for underground structures, (1) produced by permanent ground deformation (PGD) caused by the earthquake activity, and (2) caused by severe seismic shaking due to seismic wave propagation [6]. ...
... Numerous studies have focused on the tunnel crossings through active fault paths and the damage caused by fault offsets, including field studies [7,13], theoretical analyses [14], numerical simulations [1,4,5,[15][16][17][18][19], and experimental tests [2,5,15,[20][21][22]. ...
... Based on their findings, it was necessary to examine the stability of underground structures affected by faults and earthquakes, since the motion of the fault reproduced the stresses. Using the 2D discrete element method, Chang et al. [1] investigated fault rupture propagation through overlying sand in a reverse fault and validated their numerical results using an 80× g centrifuge test. Furthermore, Baziar et al. [24] used the finite element method to simulate tunnel behavior in sandy soil sediments across reverse fault rupture propagation. ...
In some subsurface urban development projects, bedrock faults intersecting with the tunnel path are inevitable. Due to the high costs of urban tunnel projects, it is necessary to study the behavior of such concrete structures under fault movement risks. Using an advanced 3D numerical finite difference code and a plastic hardening constitutive model for the soil, this paper examined the performance of the straight and oblique segmented structures of Tabriz Subway Line 2 under large deformations. The Tabriz Line 2 tunnel passes through a reverse fault called the Baghmisheh Fault. The fault–tunnel simulations were validated by centrifuge tests on the segmental tunnel for normal faulting. In the centrifuge tests and validation models, there was a maximum difference of 15%. According to the results of the Tabriz Line 2 tunnel under reverse faulting, segmental structures outperform no-joint linings when it comes to fault movement. During reverse fault movement, line 2 segments did not collapse but showed slight deformations. However, continuous structures collapsed under faulting, i.e., the structural forces created exceeded the section strength capacity. Among the segmental structures, the lining with oblique joints showed better behavior against faulting than the lining with straight joints. For better tunnel performance under fault movement, oblique joints should be used in segmental structures in faulting areas.
... presented in this paper. This observation is consistent with Chang et al. (2015) and Yao et al. (2021a, b), who investigated the mechanical response of a continuous pipe or tunnel under reverse fault dislocation. It also shows that the theoretical assumptions and numerical bounds of this paper are reasonable. ...
... As shown in Fig. 13a, when the fault dip angles are 15°, 45° and 75°, the active length ranges are − 24 m to 3 m, − 15 m to 12 m and − 7 m to 20 m, respectively. The apparent influence of fault dip angles is in excellent agreement with the findings from Yao et al. (2021a) and Chang et al. (2015). The variation of bending moment and shear force with dip angle is shown in Fig. 13b, c. ...
To investigate the longitudinal mechanical response of a pipeline or tunnel under reverse fault dislocation, this paper introduces the two-parameter Pasternak model and the vertical displacement profile equation. The analytical solution for the longitudinal mechanical response of the pipe or tunnel under reverse fault dislocation is obtained by solving the differential equation. The corresponding numerical simulations and model tests have been carried out, and the analytical solutions have been verified by combining the numerical simulation results and model test data. A parametric analysis is presented in which the effects of the shear stiffness of the elastic layer, the coefficient of subgrade reaction, the dip angle, and the ratio of soil thickness to tunnel diameter are investigated. The results show that as the shear stiffness of the elastic layer G increases, the difference between the bending moment and the shear force of the tunnel near the fault trace becomes smaller, and the value of the maximum displacement increases. As the coefficient of subgrade reaction k increases, the maximum deformation location of the tunnel is closer to the fault trace, the difference between the bending moment and the shear force of the tunnel is greater, and the active length decreases. The displacement, bending moment and shear force distributions of the tunnel become closer to the footwall as the dip angle α increases. The increases in the ratio of soil thickness to tunnel diameter H2/D lead to the distance of the maximum displacement position from the fault trace, the difference between the bending moment and the shear force decreases, but the active length increases.
... Active thrust faults pose significant earthquake hazards at convergent plate boundaries around the world. Events such as the 1988 M 6.9 Spitak, Armenia, 1999 M 7.6 Chi-Chi, Taiwan, 2008 M 7.9 Wenchuan, China, 2013 M 7.2 Bohol, Philippines, and2016 M 7.8 Kaikoura, New Zealand, earthquakes, demonstrate the complex nature of these ruptures, which often exhibit significant components of coseismic folding, secondary faulting, and distributed fracturing (Philip et al., 1992;Kelson et al., 2001;Wesnousky, 2008;Hubbard and Shaw, 2009;Xu et al., 2009;Chang et al., 2015;Kaiser et al., 2017;Boncio et al., 2018;Litchfield et al., 2018;Bray et al., 2019;Rimando et al., 2019). Patterns of deformation at or near the ground surface ( Fig. 1) pose specific hazards when earthquakes occur in urban environments and impact critical information systems, energy transmission infrastructure, and transportation systems (Kelson et al., 2001;Petersen et al., 2011;Chang et al., 2015;Boncio et al., 2018;Bray et al., 2019;Baize et al., 2020). ...
... Events such as the 1988 M 6.9 Spitak, Armenia, 1999 M 7.6 Chi-Chi, Taiwan, 2008 M 7.9 Wenchuan, China, 2013 M 7.2 Bohol, Philippines, and2016 M 7.8 Kaikoura, New Zealand, earthquakes, demonstrate the complex nature of these ruptures, which often exhibit significant components of coseismic folding, secondary faulting, and distributed fracturing (Philip et al., 1992;Kelson et al., 2001;Wesnousky, 2008;Hubbard and Shaw, 2009;Xu et al., 2009;Chang et al., 2015;Kaiser et al., 2017;Boncio et al., 2018;Litchfield et al., 2018;Bray et al., 2019;Rimando et al., 2019). Patterns of deformation at or near the ground surface ( Fig. 1) pose specific hazards when earthquakes occur in urban environments and impact critical information systems, energy transmission infrastructure, and transportation systems (Kelson et al., 2001;Petersen et al., 2011;Chang et al., 2015;Boncio et al., 2018;Bray et al., 2019;Baize et al., 2020). The displacement magnitude, width, and degree of tilting or warping of the ground surface associated with fault traces have an important impact on the ability of built structures to withstand these earthquakes (Kelson et al., 2001;Petersen et al., 2011;Boncio et al., 2018). ...
... When the Denali fault ruptured in the 2002 M 7.9 earthquake, the pipeline withstood 5.5 m of right-lateral strike-slip offset demonstrating how fault displacement hazard assessments can successfully aid in the design of sensitive infrastructure and facilities (Cluff et al., 2003;Sorensen and Meyer, 2003;Nyman et al., 2014). However, building and retrofitting such facilities often requires an ability to forecast specific characteristics of future ground surface deformation related to individual faults-a capability that we generally lack (Moss and Ross, 2011;Petersen et al., 2011;Chang et al., 2015;Moss et al., 2018). ...
We seek to improve our understanding of the physical processes that control the style, distribution, and intensity of ground surface ruptures on thrust and reverse faults during large earthquakes. Our study combines insights from coseismic ground surface ruptures in historic earthquakes and patterns of deformation in analog sandbox fault experiments to inform the development of a suite of geomechanical models based on the distinct element method (DEM). We explore how model parameters related to fault geometry and sediment properties control ground deformation characteristics such as scarp height, width, dip, and patterns of secondary folding and fracturing. DEM is well suited to this investigation because it can effectively model the geologic processes of faulting at depth in cohesive rocks, as well as the granular mechanics of soil and sediment deformation in the shallow subsurface. Our results show that localized fault scarps are most prominent in cases with strong sediment on steeply dipping faults, whereas broader deformation is prominent in weaker sediment on shallowly dipping faults. Based on insights from 45 experiments, the key parameters that influence scarp morphology include the amount of accumulated slip on a fault, the fault dip, and the sediment strength. We propose a fault scarp classification system that describes the general patterns of surface deformation observed in natural settings and reproduced in our models, including monoclinal, pressure ridge, and simple scarps. Each fault scarp type is often modified by hanging-wall collapse. These results can help to guide both deterministic and probabilistic assessment in fault displacement hazard analysis.
... This can make it more difficult to access the ore and can also affect the stability of the surrounding rock. Faults can act as conduits for fluids, which can alter the mineralogy and chemistry of the surrounding rock [1,2]. This can lead to the formation of new minerals, the destruction of existing minerals, or the mobilization of metals and other elements. ...
The F317 fault, as a major tectonic zone in the Jianshan mine area, influences the geotectonic features and geomechanical properties of the mine area. Mining operations need to be conducted within these tectonic systems, so it is important to fully study and understand the characteristics and evolution of these tectonic systems to develop reasonable mining plans and safety measures. Aiming at the problem that the existence of the F317 fault affects the stability of the west road during the mining of the security pillar at The Jianshan underground mine in Panzhihua Iron Mine, the mechanical model of the fault surface was established through the theory of material mechanics. The mechanical criterion of fault slip during the security pillar retrieval process was obtained and combined with the contact surface theory in the numerical analysis software FLAC3D. Two numerical calculation models with and without the F317 fault were established to analyze the change characteristics of the maximum tensile stress and displacement of the road protection zone under different simulation scenarios. The influence of the fault’s presence on the surface road’s stability during the security pillar retrieval process was obtained. The study results show that changes in positive and shear stresses at the fault face caused by the security pillar retrieval process are the main factors influencing the fault slip. The upper side of the fault tends to slip along the fault face during the security pillar retrieval process, which theoretically prevents the transfer of subsidence displacement caused by underground mining to the roadside (foot side of the fault). The presence of the F317 fault has less effect on the tensile stresses at the road protection zone. Still, the fault allows the tensile stresses to be concentrated at the top and bottom of the quarry and at the isolated pillar, which is more likely to cause the rock to be stretched and squeezed. Without the F317 fault, the maximum subsidence displacement at the road protection zone is 30.59 mm, the maximum X-directional displacement is 42.17 mm (both of which are greater than the safe displacement limit by 20 mm), and the maximum Y-directional displacement is 19.75 mm, which is less than the safe displacement limit by 20 mm. Compared with the case without the F317 fault, the displacement at the road protection zone with the F317 fault is smaller, with a maximum subsidence displacement of 16.92 mm, a maximum X-directional displacement of 19.63 mm, and a maximum Y-directional displacement of 3.35 mm, all of which are less than the safe displacement limits. Therefore, the presence of the F317 fault provides some protection to the west side of the road from collapse due to underground mining.
... Regarding the types of fault movement, normal faulting and reverse faulting on sand material have been mainly studied using centrifuge model tests methods [12]. The orientation of the fault plane has a significant influence on the fault rupture path and the difference of propagation feather can be primarily attributed to the orientation of the fault plane based on a series of simulations conducted by the discrete element method (DEM) [13]. The amount of fault displacement and even the depth and character of the overlying earth deposit have been investigated simultaneously in studies that investigated the types of fault movement and orientation of the fault plane. ...
Rupture propagation and ground deformation are two major issues encountered during fault propagation.
However, few studies have investigated the rupture propagation and ground deformation of a crossing fault field.
In this study, three large-scale experimental tests for simulating normal faulting in crossing fault field were
conducted to investigate the propagation characteristics and patterns of fault ruptures. In the conducted tests,
different factors were considered, such as the fault dip Df, fault width Wf and amount of normal faulting h. The
result revealed that the fault rupture pattern was mainly affected by Df, while Wf could affect the initial rupture
length and ground tensioned cracks. Three fault rupture patterns can be distinguished under different Df values.
In the former two patterns, the main fault rupture trace is in the form of a nonlinear logarithmic spiral line with
an outcropping direction of 45◦-ψp/2. Although the ground deformation profiles can be fitted roughly by
empirical equation, the local deformations at fault fracture zone are not usually predicted well. The Gompertz
function can describe the growth of ground settlement in a fault-crossing rock mass field. Therefore, Gompertz
was introduced to characterize the growth and geometrical features of ground settlement due to normal faulting.
Finally, bell-shaped ground slope curves were identified mathematically according to the first derivation of the
Gompertz function. Based on the geometrical parameters, the ground deformation characteristics were furtherly
revealed. This research would assist engineers in selecting sites and designing facilities in regions with weak fault
fracture zones.
... In this paper, we defined a normalized parameter, the offset ratio, dividing uplift displacement by stratum thickness (ΔH/D). The offset ratio is considered an indicator to describe the magnitude of the faulting offset among different models (Chang et al., 2015;Lin et al., 2006). Two transparent glass windows are installed at both longitudinal sides of the container for recording during testing. ...
In historical earthquakes, fault ruptures have caused significant ground deformation and infrastructure damage. Because the occurrences of earthquakes are hard to predict, it is critical to assess the area influenced by fault propagation for disaster resistance. Based on trench excavations in active fault zones, earthquake faults propagated through the composite strata with gravel deposits are common. However, the stratigraphy change of the overburden strata and the non-spherical granular particles of the gravel deposit are rarely considered in most case studies. This study proposes a procedure that utilizes digital image analysis and discrete element modeling to estimate the composite strata deformation induced by thrust faulting. The procedure is demonstrated through a series of small-scale sandbox modeling and a case study of the Chushan excavation site in Taiwan. The gravel fabric, including gravel volumetric content, aspect ratio and initial long-axis orientation, are considered in the parametric study as well as the configuration of the strata composition. Simulations show that fault propagation restricts in the overburden because the faulting-induced kinematic energy is mostly dissipated by clast rotation, resulting in a lower fault extended distance and a wider tri-shear zone. The rotation of the gravels shows good agreement with the range of the tri-shear zone, indicating that the long-axis orientations of gravels can be an indicator to interpret the faulting history. Overall, it is feasible to construct a reasonable numerical model for assessing fault rupture-composite strata interaction (FR-CSI) once the outcrop photo data are available. The proposed procedure is useful for efficient and reliable scenario modeling regarding earthquake hazard mitigation.
... Several investigations have employed a physical experimental approach to study soil-reverse fault interactions. Chang et al. used the centrifuge modeling method to observe ground surface changes and calibrated a numerical model on the basis of the results [19]. The results revealed that as a fault rupture propagates through a sedimentary deposit, the dip decreases as the rupture nears the ground surface because of the effect of the dilation angle. ...
The devastating damage after the 1999 Chi-Chi and 1999 Izmit earthquakes has greatly motivated soil–reverse fault interaction studies. However, most centrifuge modeling studies have employed a single homogeneous soil layer during testing, which does not represent in situ conditions. Indeed, while geological conditions vary spatially, engineering soils are often underlain by soft rocks. Therefore, four centrifuge models were developed to evaluate the effect of soft rock layers on the ground surface and subsurface deformation. Sand–cement mixtures of varying thicknesses with a uniaxial compressive strength of 0.975 MPa, simulating extremely soft rock, were overlain by pluviated sandy soil. The model thickness was 100 mm, corresponding to 8 m in the prototype scale when spun at 80 g. Every model was subjected to a vertical offset of 50 mm/4 m (0.5 H; H: total sedimentary deposit thickness) along a reverse fault with a 60° dip. The results indicate that the presence of a soft rock stratum results in the creation of a horst profile at the ground surface. Additionally, the thinner the soil layer on top of the soft rock stratum is, the longer and higher the horst created at the ground surface. Consequently, the fault deformation zone lengthens proportionally with the increasing thickness ratio of the soft rock. Furthermore, the presence of soft rock as an intermediary stratum between bedrock and soil causes the deformation zone boundary on the hanging wall side to move in the direction of fault movement.
... The DEM has been used to analyse fault-structure interaction in a few studies. Chang et al. (2013Chang et al. ( , 2015 demonstrated the effectiveness of the twodimensional (2D) DEM in simulating faulting-induced surface deformations and rupture traces involved in comparative centrifuge experiments. Hazeghian and Soroush (2015, 2017 simulated fault rupture propagation using dense assemblages of discrete particles and showed consistent predictions with the well-established localisation phenomena observed in real granular soils. ...
... The macroscopic properties of the particle assemblage were not direct inputs to the DEM simulation, so the microscale properties were selected from calibrated values presented in the literature (e.g. Chang et al., 2013Chang et al., , 2015 ( Table 2). The microscale normal and shear contact stiffnesses of the soil assembly were selected as those calibrated by Chang et al. (2013Chang et al. ( , 2015 due to the similarities in the laboratory centrifuge testing material, equipment and conditions with those of Baziar et al. (2014). ...
... Chang et al., 2013Chang et al., , 2015 ( Table 2). The microscale normal and shear contact stiffnesses of the soil assembly were selected as those calibrated by Chang et al. (2013Chang et al. ( , 2015 due to the similarities in the laboratory centrifuge testing material, equipment and conditions with those of Baziar et al. (2014). The calibration methodology used by Chang et al. (2013) was based on a comparison of the surface settlements measured in the numerical grain assembly of the PFC simulations at the self-weight consolidation stage, with the surface settlements measured from the tested sand bed during the centrifuge experiment between accelerations at 1g and 80g. ...
The interaction between an underground tunnel in a sand deposit while a reverse fault rupture propagates from the bedrock to the ground surface was simulated using the discrete-element method (DEM). The propagation pattern of the fault ruptures and the deformation profiles of the soil at the ground surface were analysed in detail considering the effects of the location and rigidity of the tunnel. The DEM simulations were verified against a set of centrifuge laboratory experiments. The DEM simulations were also compared with a set of finite-element numerical models and the efficiency of each method for the simulation of fault rupture–tunnel interaction was assessed for the first time. Both the DEM and the continuum numerical models were found to be effective complementary tools, capable of providing valuable insight into fault–tunnel interaction mechanisms. However, the DEM simulations produced a better correlation with the experimental results.
... In 1⋅g physical modeling, material properties are also scaled, while in n⋅g centrifuge modeling the weight of the soil, and thus its behavior, are similar to field conditions. Physical models have been utilized to investigate the fault-rupture propagation patterns (Chang et al., 2015;Cole and Lade, 1984;Lee and Hamada, 2005;Lin et al., 2006), the influence of pre-existing fractures (Ng et al., 2012) and different soil layers (Tali et al., 2019), or the influence of material properties, such as water content (Johansson and Konagai, 2007) and soil cohesion (Ahmadi et al., 2018a(Ahmadi et al., , 2018b. More recently, physical models have been utilized to investigate the interaction of fault ruptures with foundations (Loli et al., 2018;Rokonuzzaman et al., 2015), pipelines (Fadaee et al., 2020;Tsatsis et al., 2019) and tunnels (Baziar et al., 2014). ...
... The reliability of numerical simulations has been proven by various studies through the validation with experimental physical models or field studies (Bray et al., 1994b;Duncan and Lefebvre, 1973;Roth et al., 1982). Numerical investigation of fault-rupture propagation patterns and stress distribution has been conducted by several researchers utilizing the finiteelement (FE) method (Loukidis et al., 2009;Nollet et al., 2012;Oettle and Bray, 2013;Thebian et al., 2018), while distinct-element method (DEM) has also been used (Chang et al., 2015;Hazeghian and Soroush, 2017;Taniyama, 2011). Lin et al. (2006) investigated the influence of sand properties (i.e., friction and dilation angle) in rupture propagation, while Ng et al. (2012) and Oettle and Bray (2013) investigated the influence of preexisting fractures and Mortazavi Zanjani and Soroush (2017) the influence of different soil layers. ...
... Moreover, as it can be observed from Figs. 10 and 11, a significant bedrock displacement is needed in order to achieve a full rupture propagation through the soil layer up to the soil surface (i.e., fault outcropping). Since these displacements are crucial for adjacent structures, the critical values of bedrock displacement for fault outcropping have been investigated in several studies (Agalianos et al., 2020;Anastasopoulos et al., 2007;Chang et al., 2015;Hazeghian and Soroush, 2017;Loukidis et al., 2009;Thebian et al., 2018). As it can be seen in Fig. 10a, the main (normal) fault outcropping appears for normalized bedrock displacement h/H = 0.5%. ...
The increasing urban development in seismic-prone regions, in conjunction with the continuous construction of large-scale lifelines (i.e., road and railway networks, pipelines, etc.) has increased the risk of potential damages due to permanent displacements at the ground surface that can be caused by an earthquake fault rupture. Several recent earthquakes have revealed this risk. Therefore, the problem of fault rupture propagation of a single fault has been thoroughly investigated with field studies, as well as experimental tests and numerical models. Nevertheless, the presence of parallel or intersecting secondary fault ruptures is usually observed in the field due to stress redistributions and/or rock heterogeneities. The aim of the current study is to examine the rupture patterns and surface displacements caused by the contemporaneous rupture of a main fault and a perpendicular secondary fault. A three-dimensional numerical model has been developed utilizing the finite-element method in order to examine this complex phenomenon in sandy deposits. The soil behavior is represented quite accurately via an elastoplastic Mohr-Coulomb constitutive model with isotropic strain softening, which is initially validated with experimental results obtained by centrifuge tests in case of a single fault. Subsequently, a detailed parametric study has been performed, investigating different fault types and dip angles, as well as sandy layer thickness and material properties, to highlight various important aspects regarding the development and propagation of secondary fault ruptures and the resulting zones of excessive surface displacements.