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This paper intends to establish an overall up to date review on Fast Charging methods for Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV). This study starts from basic concepts involving single battery cell charging, current and future charging standards. Then, some popular power converter topologies employed for this application are introduced, and finally a summ...
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... The trend in electric vehicle (EV) development is towards higher charging voltages to enhance charging speed, reduce system losses and heat, optimize battery management, and improve power and range [1][2]. Models like the Kia EV6, BYD Seal, and Audi A6 Avant are adopting high-voltage charging. ...
The LLC resonant converter features its high efficiency and compact design but struggles with achieving a wide voltage gain. To address this challenge, multi-stage circuits, hybrid control strategies, and multi-mode operations are utilized, though these solutions increase the system's complexity. This paper presents an innovative LLC resonant converter with a stacked bridge structure, employing simple PFM and secondary turn-on/off control. By incorporating a stacked half-bridge primary and a reconfigurable multi-voltage rectifier, the proposed design extends the output voltage range within a narrow switching frequency range while reducing voltage stress on both the primary and secondary sides by half. The reconfigurable rectifier operates as a double-voltage rectifier at low output voltages and a quadruple-voltage rectifier at high output voltages. The converter adapts to varying voltage requirements, making it suitable for high voltage applications like on-board charging and DC fast charging. Experimental validation with a prototype operating at 400V input and 200-800V output at 500W demonstrates effective soft-switching across the voltage range and confirms the feasibility of the design.
... Most electric vehicle's AC charging is limited to 11 kW, while DC fast charging may vary between 50 and 400 kW [19,20]. This research has shown that last-generation fast charging stations, whose power output is over 100 kW, are not a problem in terms of noise emissions, and that first-generation 50 kW fast chargers exceed the noise limits set by the Regulation. ...
The potential of electric vehicles (EVs) to support the decarbonization of the transportation sector, crucial for meeting greenhouse gas reduction targets under the Paris Agreement, is obvious. Despite their advantages, the adoption of electric vehicles faces limitations, particularly those related to battery range and charging times, which significantly impact the time needed for a trip compared to their combustion engine counterparts. However, recent improvements in fast charging technology have enhanced these aspects, making EVs more suitable for both daily and long-distance trips. EVs can now deal with long trips, with travel times only slightly longer than those of internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. Fast charging capabilities and infrastructure, such as 350 kW chargers, are essential for making EV travel times comparable to ICE vehicles, with brief stops every 2–3 h. Additionally, EVs help reduce noise pollution in urban areas, especially in noise-saturated environments, contributing to an overall decrease in urban sound levels. However, this research highlights a downside of DC (Direct Current) fast charging stations: high-frequency noise emissions during fast charging, which can disturb nearby residents, especially in urban and residential areas. This noise, a result of the growing fast charging infrastructure, has led to complaints and even operational restrictions for some charging stations. Noise-related disturbances are a significant urban issue. The World Health Organization identifies noise as a key contributor to health burdens in Europe, even when noise annoyance is subjective, influenced by individual factors like sensitivity, genetics, and lifestyle, as well as by the specific environment. This paper analyzes the sound emission of a broad sample of DC fast charging stations from leading EU market brands. The goal is to provide tools that assist manufacturers, installers, and operators of rapid charging stations in mitigating the aforementioned sound emissions in order to align these infrastructures with Sustainable Development Goals 3 and 11 adopted by all United Nations Member States in 2015.
... 1 Fast charging capability is particularly important for the widespread commercial success of battery electric vehicles (BEVs), as it drives consumer acceptance and is therefore of great economic value to original equipment manufacturers. 2,3 While the battery management system (BMS) controls the fast charging process in LIB applications, the intrinsic fast charging capability is limited by the electrochemical processes in the lithium-ion cells. The main limitation for fast charging is the deposition of metallic lithium on the negative electrode surface, commonly known as lithium plating. ...
In Part I of this work, it was shown that a two-dimensional Doyle-Fuller-Newman (DFN) model can predict inhomogeneous lithium plating during cycling caused by anode overhang. This indicates an increased risk of lithium plating at the cell edge. In Part II, the same model is used to simulate defined cycling conditions of real cells to experimentally validate the proposed model and the edge plating mechanism. The cells used for this purpose are single-layer pouch (SLP) cells instrumented with several spatially distributed gold wire micro-reference electrodes, enabling the measurement of local electrolyte potentials. First, the simulation indicates a significantly inhomogeneous potential distribution during 500-hour potentiostatic storage before the actual study, which is also observed in the local potential measurements of the real cells. Second, the cells are slowly discharged and then fast charged. Consequently, lower local anode potentials are observed near the edge compared to the center, which is consistent with the simulation results. Finally, the predicted and measured lithium plating near the anode edge is cross-validated by visual inspection in post-mortem analyses. The results are particularly relevant for optimizing cell design and operating strategies, as they demonstrate the relevance of considering previous operation during fast charging to avoid inhomogeneous degradation.
... Base country: Germany • Lift/Thrust method: tilt-wing and tilt-canard; electric jet propulsion units (for lift and forward thrust) attached to the wing and the canard. A canard is a forward horizontal stabilizer (unlike the conventional case of a rear stabilizer within a tail assemble) [259-263] • Tail shape: front canard (no vertical stabilizer) • Propellers' count: 30 motors within the main wing and the canard wing • Propellers' mount: ducted DEP (distributed electric propulsion) [264-269] • Number of non-pilot passengers: configurable (up to 6) • Piloting: onboard human pilot • Speed: 248 km/h (cruising) • Range: 175 km (maximum) • Remarks:(1) The Lilium Jet UAM-eVTOL uses a standard CCS charger (combined charging system for battery electric vehicles "BEVs" fast DC charger)[270][271][272][273][274]. (2) Typical charging session: about 45 minutes (3) On 18/July/2024, Lilium GmbH announced a firm order from "Saudia" (Saudi Arabian Airlines, the national flag carrier of Saudi Arabia) to acquire 50 Lilium Jets, with an option for additional 50 units of that UAM-eVTOL aircraft[275]. ...
We collected data about 13 urban air mobility (UAM) electric vertical take-off and landing (eVTOL) aircraft from 12 UAM companies in the world. While none of these models has yet reached a large-scale commercial operation (particularly as air taxis), some of them progressed well in the certification process and may have their UAM models widely operated within a few years. This article focuses on the variability in the configurations of these UAM eVTOL aircraft for aerial e-mobility; such as single-fixed-wing, tandem-tilt-wing, canard wing, fixed-rotor fixed-wing, full tilt-rotor, partial tilt-rotor, V-shaped tail, tailless, twin tail, conventional tail assembly, distributed propulsion, multicopter, rear forward thrust propeller, ducted fans, and a hybrid airplane-helicopter design. The 13 UAM eVTOL aircraft covered here are: (1) EH216-S (by EHang), (2) VoloCity (by Volocopter), (3) Lilium Jet (by Lilium), (4) VoloRegion (by Volocopter), (5) CityAirbus NextGen (by Airbus), (6) Passenger Air Vehicle - PAV (by Boeing), (7) S-A2 (by Hyundai), (8) Joby (by Joby Aviation), (9) VX4 (by Vertical Aerospace Group), (10) Midnight (by Archer Aviation), (11) Eve (by Eve Air Mobility), (12) Jaunt (by Jaunt Air Mobility), and (13) Generation 6 (by Wisk Aero). Out of these 13 UAM eVTOL aircraft models for aerial e-mobility and/or air taxis, we found that 11 models utilize a wing configuration, while only two use a wingless multirotor concept (as in hobbyist drones). A fixed-wing design is associated with a faster travel speed, at the expense of added restrictions on maneuvering and low-speed travel (or hovering). Six models are intended to have an onboard human pilot, while the remaining seven models are designed to be pilotless. One model demonstrated the ability to use hydrogen as a clean source of energy through a fuel cell system.
... A magnetic field is used to produce an electrical current in a coil on the vehicle, which subsequently charges the battery. Convenience, safety, durability, and weather resistance are just a few of the benefits of IC over traditional conductive charging 93) . Inductive charging presents certain disadvantages, including reduced efficiency, a limited air gap, and constraints in power transmission. ...
Electric three-wheelers are emerging as a critical component of sustainable urban mobility, especially in developing countries like India. This review investigates the dual focus of enhancing charging infrastructure and addressing safety parameters, with an overarching goal of enabling the widespread adoption of these vehicles. The study employs a mixed-method approach, integrating policy analysis, technical review of battery technologies, and evaluation of infrastructure gaps. Statistical data reveals a 64% reduction in energy demand and a 37% decrease in CO2 emissions associated with India's shift to electric three-wheelers by 2030. A comparative analysis of battery technologies, including lead-acid, lithium-ion, and solid-state batteries, highlights the challenges of energy density, cost, and environmental impact. The findings underscore the critical need for urban charging stations in Delhi and similar expansions in other metropolitan cities on a priority basis to meet demand. Novel contributions include an in-depth analysis of safety protocols, proposing advancements in battery management systems and international charging standards. This study concludes by advocating a multi-stakeholder approach, involving government, industry, and academia, to overcome infrastructural and technological barriers, facilitating the adoption of electric three-wheelers as an eco-friendly alternative to fossil-fueled vehicles.
... Constant current charging technology has been extensively researched, as it determines the stability and lifespan of electronic devices [1][2][3][4][5][6]. The flyback topology offers advantages such as simple structure, good electrical isolation, wide input voltage range, and low cost [7][8]. ...
This article proposes a constant current regulation design for primary-side controlled flyback converter. The regulation circuit consists of two parts: an OSC circuit and an adaptive primary side peak current threshold compensation circuit. The OSC circuit generates a switching cycle signal with a fixed ratio to the demagnetization time, and the adaptive primary side peak current threshold compensation circuit. To verify the feasibility and accuracy of the proposed constant current regulation design, the designed chip was fabricated and tested. Under 12V/1.9A configuration, the test results showed that the line regulation and load regulation of the output current can achieve within ±1.7% and ±0.15%, respectively.
... Furthermore, with the rising need for fast charging in the present market, extreme fast charging (XFC), defined as charging ≥350 kW at 6C to 80% SOC in~10 min, is highly sought after for Li-ion batteries in electric vehicles (EVs) [2][3][4]. XFC is becoming feasible due to the network of public direct-current (DC) XFC chargers with the power to add 200 miles of driving range in 10 min via the 400 kW output [5]. ...
Understanding and accurately determining battery cell properties is crucial for assessing battery capabilities. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is commonly employed to evaluate these properties, typically under controlled laboratory conditions with steady-state measurements. Traditional steady-state EIS (SSEIS) requires the battery to be at rest to ensure a linear response. However, real-world applications, such as electric vehicles (EVs), expose batteries to varying states of charge (SOC) and temperature fluctuations, often occurring simultaneously. This study investigates the impact of SOC and temperature on EIS in terms of battery properties and impedance. Initially, SSEIS results were compared with dynamic EIS (DEIS) outcomes after a full charge under changing temperatures. Subsequently, DEIS was analysed using combined SOC and temperature variations during active charging. The study employed a commercial 450 mAh lithium-ion (Li-ion) cobalt oxide (LCO) graphite pouch cell, subject to a 1C constant current (CC)–constant voltage (CCCV) charge for SSEIS and CC charge for DEIS, with SOC ranging from 50% to 100% and cell temperatures from 10 to 35°C. The research developed models to interpolate battery impedance data, demonstrating accurate impedance predictions across operating conditions. Findings revealed significant differences between dynamic data and steady-state results, with DEIS more accurately reflecting real-use scenarios where the battery is not at equilibrium and exhibits concentration gradients. These models have potential applications in battery management systems (BMSs) for EVs, enabling health assessments by predicting resistance and capacitance changes, thereby ensuring battery cells’ longevity and optimal performance.
... One pressing challenge in the battery industry revolves around the rapid charging of batteries while ensuring safety and minimizing degradation. Lengthy charging times stand as a significant obstacle to the widespread adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) [2]. To address this issue, the development of fast-charging stations is crucial [3]. ...
This paper presents an innovative approach to optimize the fast-charging strategy for cylindrical Li-ion NMC 3Ah cells, with a focus on enhancing both charging efficiency and thermal safety. Leveraging the power of Model Predictive Control (MPC), we introduce a cost function that approximates the thermal safety boundary of Li-ion batteries, revealing a relationship between temperature gradient and state of charge. Our proposed approach formulates the fast and safe charging problem as an optimal output regulator problem, incorporating thermal safety margin constraints. To solve the optimization problem, we develop an MPC algorithm. Our charge control structure incorporates an equivalent circuit model coupled with a thermal equation for battery state of charge and temperature estimation. Through numerical validation with real experimental data obtained from testing an NMC 3Ah cylindrical cell, we demonstrate that our approach respects the battery’s electrical and thermal constraints throughout the charging process.
... A significant challenge in the battery industry is achieving rapid charging while ensuring safety and minimizing degradation. Lengthy charging times are a major barrier to the widespread adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) [2], highlighting the need for fast charging stations [3]. These stations are essential for providing quick and reliable charging, thereby maximizing battery efficiency. ...
Ensuring efficiency and safety is critical when developing charging strategies for lithium-ion batteries. This paper introduces a novel method to optimize fast charging for cylindrical Li-ion NMC 3Ah cells, enhancing both their charging efficiency and thermal safety. Using Model Predictive Control (MPC), this study presents a cost function that estimates the thermal safety boundary of Li-ion batteries, emphasizing the relationship between the temperature gradient and the state of charge (SoC) at different temperatures. The charging control framework combines an equivalent circuit model (ECM) with minimal electro-thermal equations to estimate battery state and temperature. Optimization results indicate that at ambient temperatures, the optimal charging allows the cell’s temperature to self-regulate within a safe operating range, requiring only one additional minute to reach 80% SoC compared to a typical fast-charging protocol (high current profile). Validation through numerical simulations and real experimental data from an NMC 3Ah cylindrical cell demonstrates that the simple approach adheres to the battery’s electrical and thermal limitations during the charging process.
... For DC charging, an external charger EVSE is required. A maximum power of 100 kW is employed to charge the vehicle, using a voltage source of 500 V DC and a maximum current rating of 200 A. The charging costs associated with DC Fast Charging (DCFC) might vary between $12 and $25 per mile [48]. A summary of charging levels according to the SEA standard is displayed in Table 3. ...
... According to IEC-62196, there are four different charging modes for (EVs): mode 1 (slow charging), mode 2 (semi-fast charging), mode 3 (fast charging), and mode 4 (ultra-fast charging) [46][47][48]. Various modes of charging and their power ratings are displayed in Table 4. As per the Chinese standard (GB/T20234), the classification is AC charging and DC charging [48][49][50][51], as depicted in Table 5. ...
... Various modes of charging and their power ratings are displayed in Table 4. As per the Chinese standard (GB/T20234), the classification is AC charging and DC charging [48][49][50][51], as depicted in Table 5. Table 6 illustrates the time needed to charge the vehicle from empty to 80 % of the total capacity using different charging levels. ...