Table 1 - uploaded by Vladislav Kruzhanov
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A detailed analysis of energy consumption throughout the PM production route has been conducted, based on both theoretical and experimental considerations, with the focus on PM parts production. Comparison of the values obtained with actual values from production plants provides useful insights into process development and priorities for energy con...
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... energy consumption in powder production was also examined at the beginning of the 1980s. 4 The resulting breakdown among the process steps (converted into kWh per kilogram) is given in Table 1. It can be clearly seen that the values measured in the process are more than twice those calculated above. ...
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The coordinated optimization of energy conservation, efficiency improvement, and pollution reduction in the sintering production process is vital for the efficient and sustainable development of the sintering department. However, previous studies have shown shortcomings in the multi-objective collaborative optimization of sintering systems and the...
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... Compared to them FDM manufacturing is far from being considered optimized and is a low-volume manufacturing process. All presented processes in Figure 7 use electricity to manufacture; the values for them are from [35], except in the case of FDM, where the values were measured and calculated. ...
The paper presents a simple and cost-effective way of enhancing the thermal conductivity of the paraffin/graphite phase change material (PCM) composite spheres manufactured by using a low-cost and eco-friendly method. The composite materials were made of an admixture of 5–20% vol. graphite powder. The manufacturing process of macro-encapsulated PCM consists of creating digital models, mold printing, and PCM injections. The experimental data shows that composite materials have an increased thermal conductivity, from 3 to 11 times compared to paraffin, and are effective in cooling application of electronic components where they lowered the maximum temperature up to 30 °C. For low-volume PCM sphere fabrication, it was proposed the injection molding in the 3D printed mold; the results show that fused deposition modeling (FDM) is efficient in saving energy up to 30% compared to machining. The carbon emissions generated during the fabrication technology were found to be strongly dependent on printing process parameters and the energy mix used to produce the electrical energy used.
... The majority of the energy requirement is therefore required for the subsequent heat treatment, which is necessary for the post-processing of the powder, followed by the melting and atomization stages. The authors highlight that the calculated minimum requirements diverge signi cantly from the actual energy requirements, with an overall e ciency of powder production estimated to be below 50% [29]. These ndings are consistent with those reported by Bocchini (1983). ...
... For Kruzhanov and Arnhold's analysis of water atomization a maximum GWP of 0.39 kg CO 2 -eq./kg and a maximum CED of 6.48 MJ/kg were determined. The largest share of the environmental impact, at 44%, is caused by melting the material, followed by heat treatment, and drying [29]. The use of water in the atomization process eliminates the need for inert gas, reducing the overall environmental impact. ...
The production of metal powder required for certain metal additive manufacturing processes has a significant environmental impact on the process chain. In particular, there is a lack of energy- and resource-related data on the environmental impact of industrial powder production and in-depth analysis of individual process steps. This study aims to provide a reliable life cycle inventory and, based on this, to determine the global warming potential (GWP) and cumulative energy demand (CED) resulting from the industrial production of melt atomized metal powders for additive manufacturing using gas atomization within the framework of a life cycle assessment (LCA). In this LCA, considering an average electricity mix at a production site in Germany, the GWP for closed-coupled atomization ranged from 4.61 kg CO 2 -eq./kg to 16.71 kg CO 2 -eq./kg. The results are slightly lower than those of free-fall atomization with a GWP between 5.58 kg CO 2 -eq./kg and 24.81 kg CO 2 -eq./kg. The need for inert gas is a major contributor to the environmental impact. If argon is used as an atomizing gas instead of nitrogen, the environmental impact increases, since argon has a GWP and CED approximately six times higher than nitrogen. Preheating the inert gas reduces the requirement and thus also the resulting environmental impact. This study provides a crucial basis for assessing the environmental impact of powder metal additive manufacturing processes and, enabling environmentally friendly process and product design. In addition, effective strategies to reduce the environmental impact of gas atomization can be identified based.
... Conventional methods typically involve significant material waste due to machining and cutting processes, whereas PM offers near-net shape capabilities, resulting in minimal material waste. Conventional methods often require multiple steps and extensive machining to achieve complex geometries, while PM can produce intricate shapes directly from the powder, reducing the need for additional machining [14,15]. Microstructural control is another area where PM excels; conventional methods may result in inhomogeneous microstructures due to the melting and solidification processes, whereas PM provides better control and uniformity through controlled powder production and sintering processes. ...
... In terms of processing temperature and energy consumption, conventional methods typically involve high temperatures for melting and casting, leading to higher energy consumption, whereas PM often operates at lower temperatures, particularly in sintering and consolidation steps, resulting in energy savings [16]. Mechanical properties are also enhanced in PM, which can achieve superior properties through uniform microstructures, enhanced diffusion bonding, and advanced consolidation techniques like hot isostatic pressing (HIP) and spark plasma sintering (SPS) [15,[17][18][19]. PM offers greater flexibility in alloy design, enabling the development of novel alloys, including HEAs, with unique properties, whereas conventional methods are limited in the range of compositions that can be processed due to melting point differences and segregation issues. ...
High-entropy alloys (HEAs) represent a revolutionary class of materials characterized by their multi-principal element compositions and exceptional mechanical properties. Powder metallurgy, a versatile and cost-effective manufacturing process, offers significant advantages for the development of HEAs, including precise control over their composition, microstructure, and mechanical properties. This review explores innovative approaches integrating powder metallurgy techniques in the synthesis and optimization of HEAs. Key advances in powder production, sintering methods, and additive manufacturing are examined, highlighting their roles in improving the performance, advancement, and applicability of HEAs. The review also discusses the mechanical properties, potential industrial applications, and future trends in the field, providing a comprehensive overview of the current state and future prospects of HEA development using powder metallurgy.
... Other stochastic factors like technique level, ambient condition, human manipulation, and measurement error vary significantly in different cases and are not considered in this study. The physical properties of metal material such as melting point, specific heat capacity (SHC), and enthalpy of melting significantly affected energy consumption [23], and their relationship can be expressed as: ...
... The efficiency of heating (η heat ) and efficiency of compression (η comp ) vary significantly across different cases due to the equipment or technical level. A prior study [23] showed that theoretical energy use of melting and atomization account for 50% and 25% of the practical energy consumption, respectively. The simulated energy consumption data is presented in Additional file 1. Apart from the EIGA and VIGA methods, water atomization [25], mechanical milling [26], and high-energy ball milling [27] are also capable of producing specific metal powders. ...
Metal powder contributes to the environmental burdens of additive manufacturing (AM) substantially. Current life cycle assessments (LCAs) of metal powders present considerable variations of lifecycle environmental inventory due to process divergence, spatial heterogeneity, or temporal fluctuation. Most importantly, the amounts of LCA studies on metal powder are limited and primarily confined to partial material types. To this end, based on the data surveyed from a metal powder supplier, this study conducted an LCA of titanium and nickel alloy produced by electrode-inducted and vacuum-inducted melting gas atomization, respectively. Given that energy consumption dominates the environmental burden of powder production and is influenced by metal materials’ physical properties, we proposed a Bayesian stochastic Kriging model to estimate the energy consumption during the gas atomization process. This model considered the inherent uncertainties of training data and adaptively updated the parameters of interest when new environmental data on gas atomization were available. With the predicted energy use information of specific powder, the corresponding lifecycle environmental impacts can be further autonomously estimated in conjunction with the other surveyed powder production stages. Results indicated the environmental impact of titanium alloy powder is slightly higher than that of nickel alloy powder and their lifecycle carbon emissions are around 20 kg CO 2 equivalency. The proposed Bayesian stochastic Kriging model showed more accurate predictions of energy consumption compared with conventional Kriging and stochastic Kriging models. This study enables data imputation of energy consumption during gas atomization given the physical properties and producing technique of powder materials.
... Moreover, for the production of metal powder for 3D printing, we consider the energy requirements and carbon emissions associated with its production, taking into account the energy mix of the producing country. According to Kruzanov [45] they estimated the energy consumption for the fabrication of stainless steel powder to be 2.1 kWh per kg powder. Furthermore, by taking into account the energy sources in China and USA respectively, we can calculate the emission per kg powder as depicted in Table 3. ...
Metal Additive Manufacturing (MAM) has seen significant growth in recent years, with sub-processes like Metal Material Extrusion (MEX) reaching industrial readiness. MEX, known for its cost-effectiveness and ease of integration, targets a distinct market segment compared to established high-end MAM processes. However, despite technological improvements, its overall integration into the industry as a viable manufacturing technology remains incomplete. This paper investigates the competitiveness of MEX, specifically its integration into the supply chain and the implications on cost and carbon emissions. Utilizing real-world data, the research develops a multi-objective optimization (MOO) model for a four-echelon supply chain including suppliers, airports, production facilities, and customers. The optimization model is combined with a previously developed cost model for MEX to optimize facility location in Norway using the NSGA-II algorithm. Employing a case study approach, the paper examines the production of an industrial part using stainless steel 17-4PH, detailing concrete process costs and system-level costs across four different production scenarios: 10, 100, 1,000, and 10,000 parts. The findings indicate MEX's potential for cost-effective production at low and diversified volumes, supporting the trend towards customization and manufacturing flexibility. However, the study also identifies significant challenges in maintaining competitiveness at higher production volumes. These challenges underline the necessity for further advancements in MEX technology and process optimization to enhance its applicability and efficiency in larger-scale production settings.
... In contrast, manufacturing via a powder metallurgy route enables a wider range of compositions and can provide greater strength and homogeneous-microstructure-associated mechanical integrity [9,10]. Furthermore, powder metallurgy can provide near-net shape capability, which has been proven to lead to reduced waste generation and lower energy consumption per unit mass in comparison to traditional forming methods [11]. By processing in the solid-state, any possible detrimental diffusional or chemical reactions between constituent phases can be minimized. ...
With the ever-growing emphasis on global decarbonization and rapid increases in the power densities of electronics equipment in recent years, new methods and lightweight materials have been developed to manage heat load as well as interfacial stresses associated with coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) mismatches between components. The Al–Si system provides an attractive combination of CTE performance and high thermal conductivity whilst being a very lightweight option. Such materials are of interest to industries where thermal management is a key design criterion, such as the aerospace, automotive, consumer electronics, defense, EV, and space sectors. This paper will describe the development and manufacture of a family of high-performance hypereutectic Al–Si alloys (AyontEX™) by a powder metallurgy method. These alloys are of particular interest for structural heat sink applications that require high reliability under thermal cycling (CTE of 17 μm/(m·°C)), as well as reflective optics and instrument assemblies that require good thermal and mechanical stability (CTE of 13 μm/(m·°C)). Critical performance relationships are presented, coupled with the microstructural, physical, and mechanical properties of these Al–Si alloys.
... Many studies have investigated the resource consumption during machining using the LCA method. Most studies focus on the consumable LCA whether it is the tool [16][17][18] or the lubrication [19][20][21]. They demonstrate some accuracy of analysis in conjunction with presenting experimental results, but do not provide a comprehensive view of the environmental impact of the process. ...
... The volumes used are estimated from previous studies [41]. • The whole energy consumption aspect of the insert production chain has been studied theoretically [18] but also quantified experimentally at the CERATIZIT industrial site in Austria [16,17], which will be used for the study. As the processes used are similar depending on the type of powder used, the assumption that the energy consumed is independent of the powder recipe is assumed. ...
Manufacturing processes, particularly machining operations, contribute significantly to the environmental footprint of the industrial sector, primarily driven by the consumption of critical resources such as lubricants, tools, and electrical energy. However, the large number of machining parameters and the difficulties of modeling industrial products have always limited analysis of the environmental impact of the process. This study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the environmental impact during dry machining. The overarching goal is to contribute to the development of strategies to mitigate the environmental consequences of these manufacturing processes. To achieve this objective, a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) was conducted to quantify and analyze the environmental impact, using the Environmental Footprint 3.0 calculation method. The central idea is to highlight the often-underestimated contribution of tool wear to the overall environmental impact of the machining process, whereas in the literature electrical energy is the most studied source of consumption. The methodology involves an analytical model, and an experimental test designed to quantify the resource consumption, with the conduct of a sensitivity analysis to determine the machining parameters and scenario influence on the distribution of environmental impact. While electricity consumption traditionally dominates discussions of environmental impact in machining, results of the study reveal a significant contribution from tool wear in the environmental impact ratio, according to specific environmental indicators. The preponderance of this contribution is favored when the values of cutting conditions or tool radius /number of teeth are increased. Depending on the values of the cutting conditions, the scenario and the environmental indicator, the proportion of tool wear in the environmental impact ratio can vary from 5% to almost 90%. In terms of global environmental impact, cutting speed is the most influential parameter, varying by more than 2 times the minimum value for each environmental indicator. A precise definition of the scenario and consideration of the machining parameters are therefore essential to assess the environmental impact of machining correctly. This study also underscores the importance of considering tool wear in the environmental impact of dry machining, which plays an important role depending on cutting conditions, especially cutting speed.
... Although it is difficult to find accurate, comparable, and reliable values in the public domain for the energy consumption of different manufacturing processes in the metal working industries, recently companies have increasingly published information on energy consumption in their annual business or environmental reports. Some studies in literature largely make up for this lack of data[201] ...
In 2015 United Nations published an Agenda for Sustainable Development, with 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), representing “a plan of action for overcoming poverty while protecting the planet and ensuring that all people enjoy peace and prosperity”. The SDG stress that economic growth needs to be fulfilled taking into consideration social responsibility and environment protection. For what concerns environment protection, goal 13 “Climate action” is becoming imperative. Greenhouse effect is seen as the main contributor to climate change and therefore one of the most urgent actions to be taken is reducing emission of greenhouse effect gas (GHG). Similarly, energy is needed for developed and developing countries so also goal 7 “Affordable and Clean Energy” needs to be among top priorities, aiming to have clean energy at low cost.
Energy companies are one of the primary sources of greenhouse gases, they utilize about 57% of global fuel produced worldwide. Even if renewables are expected to be the fastest growing source of energy, with primary share growing from 3% in 2015 to 10% in 2035, natural gas is expected to grow faster than oil and coal, overtaking coal to be the second largest energy source in 2035. For this reason, main Energy industries have endorsed an agenda for sustainability, focusing on carbon footprint reduction. Baker Hughes as energy technology company has taken the commitment to achieve a 50% reduction in CO2 equivalent emissions from own operations by 2030 and net zero CO2 equivalent emissions by 2050. This commitment aligns Baker Hughes with the Paris Climate Agreement targeting to limit global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius.
During the timeframe of this PhD work the world went through two main crises that strongly impacted the energy sector. In 2020 the world faced its first global pandemic: Covid-19 has changed the lifestyle of the whole world population. Due to the pandemic many countries established lockdowns, forcing people to stay home limiting their activities, global energy demand dropped by 5% in 2020, with the positive effect of reducing energy-related CO2 emissions by 7%, and the negative one of decreasing global energy investment by 18%. In 2021, still many economies were suffering the weight of Covid-19 lockdowns. Nevertheless, renewable sources of energy such as wind and solar PV continued to grow rapidly, and electric vehicles set new sales records. Many countries following the 26th Conference of the Parties (COP26) call took new commitments for contributing to the global effort to reach climate goals; more than 50 countries, as well as the entire European Union, have pledged to meet net zero emissions targets. In 2022, while I am writing, the world is in the middle of its first global energy crisis after Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. Russia has been by far the world’s largest exporter of fossil fuels, and its restrictions of natural gas supply to Europe and European sanctions on imports of oil and coal from Russia are affecting the energy market. Prices for spot purchases of natural gas have reached levels never seen before, exceeding the equivalent of USD 250 for a barrel of oil. Coal has also hit record prices, while oil rose well above USD 100 per barrel in mid‐2022 before falling back. Higher energy prices are also increasing food insecurity in many developing economies, with the heaviest burden falling on poorer households where a larger share of income is spent on energy and food. Some 75 million people who recently gained access to electricity are likely to lose the ability to pay for it, meaning that for the first time since we started tracking it, the total number of people worldwide without electricity access has started to rise. Almost 100 million people may be pushed back into reliance on firewood for cooking instead of cleaner and healthier solutions. On the other side this could be a boost for improving energy efficiency and changing consumption habits in some of the most emitting countries. In the last three years energy markets and policies have changed because of Covid-19 and Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, not just for the time being, but for decades to come. The need for clean energy and the urgency of cost‐competitive and affordable clean energy are now stronger, together with the energy security. This alignment of economic, climate and security priorities has finally started to push the world towards a better value for the people, for the prosperity, and for the planet. It has been recognized as essential not to leave anyone behind, especially at a time when geopolitical crisis on energy and climate are more visible. The journey to a more secure and sustainable energy system may not be a smooth one. But today’s crisis makes it crystal clear why we need to press ahead.
In this thesis the social, environmental, and cost impact of innovative manufacturing technologies recently introduced in Baker Hughes were analyzed, excluding use phase impacts, being product’s performances invariant. Since innovation is a complex social process, where monetary interest is strongly related to social acceptance, it is important to validate its impact on stakeholders taking in account also the risks related to the new technology introduction. The scope of this research is to conduct a comprehensive assessment of all the major sources of ecological impacts (energy use, waste, resource consumption etc.) and categories of impacts (climate change, toxicity, land use, etc.), analyzing impact for specific use cases of gas turbine’s component production options, so that stakeholders can make an informed decision on which technology to buy or use, as well as find reference data to identify the sectors causing the greatest social impacts (hot spots). Main target can be summarized as:
1. Define the correct indicators that can lead to a sustainable future, proposing a path that can be beneficial for energy companies and for the society.
2. Compare the applicable methodologies for product sustainability assessment providing direction to the best tools and databases to be used.
3. Evaluate the environmental and social performance of background processes finding main drivers and negligible parameters to simplify future decision maker’s choices.
The state of the art of Sustainability and application in energy companies will be presented in Chapter 1, followed by the explanation of the energy trilemma in chapter 2. Current methodologies and tools available for environmental and social Life Cycle assessment will be presented in chapters 3 and 4 including a proposal to evaluate social life cycle assessment (SLCA) of products, to take decision and prioritize company activities on that taking into consideration what is called “triple bottom line”: society, environment, and prosperity. SLCA together with environmental life cycle assessment (ELCA) and Life Cycle Cost (LCC) can contribute to the full assessment of a product or service in the context of sustainable development. The SLCA starts from the stakeholder analysis and definition of social indicators (as: expenses for health, safety or education, work accidents, possibility to organize in Trade unions and so on), and needs to be developed with company’s stakeholder's consensus in order to represent their view. The steps and the processes are the same used for ELCA. The product under study is the NovaLT™16 Gas Turbine, designed and produced by Baker Hughes; a selection of most impacting components has been performed and is reported in Chapter 12 Appendix B.
Nozzles and bucket are the most impacting components in terms of environmental impact, so it was decided to produce them via additive manufacturing (AM) instead of investment casting (IC). As explained in Chapter 5, AM is revolutionizing prototyping production and even small-scale manufacturing. Usually, it is assumed that AM has lower environmental impact, compared to traditional manufacturing processes, but there have been no comprehensive ELCA studies confirming this, especially for the gas turbines and turbomachinery sector. LCA is the methodology applied to compare the environmental and social performance of production of two gas turbine’s components via IC (traditional) or AM (innovative) as detailed in Chapter 6 where five use cases are reported. Comparing the environmental and social performance of innovative technology introduction versus the traditional one (AM vs. IC) to produce a Shroud for Gas Turbine also checking the applicability of human health as an indicator. Then it has been analyzed the environmental and social impact of introducing additive manufacturing for spare parts production developing a survey to involve internal stakeholders in weighting the different indicators. Finally, in Chapter 7 conclusions and suggestions for future development are reported.
From the analysis performed, it has been recognized that:
• the most environmental impacting components of a gas turbines are blades and nozzles (typically made by high alloy metals and produced by investment casting)
• additive manufacturing is in general a good option to reduce environmental and social impact of components traditionally produced via investment casting
• From Social standpoint human health in terms of DALY is a good methodology to quickly evaluate the social impact of a good and alternative design options.
• A detailed Social LCA using SimaPro plus SHDB database can estimate the risks related to good production. This methodology, even if more qualitative respect to the DALY is powerful to assess where the potential hotspots are in terms of supply country and industry sector.
• Cobalt is a very risky hotspot. Reducing its utilization or procuring it from socially responsible mining companies can be a way to reduce risks.
• A new KPI is proposed, avoiding contemplating the cost as it is highly fluctuating, taking in consideration amount of resource used (material and energy)
The variation of Energy, Social risk (or health risk), Raw material amount, and carbon footprint of base and redesigned component, can be used to calculate a single KPI. With this sustainability KPI it is possible to fully compare the different production options.
... Energy is required for melting, atomising and annealing of iron. The thermal energy consumption in powder production was examined to be 2.1 kWh per kg powder, according to Kruzhanov & Arnhold [48]. ...
... The energy demand for the production per kg of WC/Co powder is calculated based on the works of Kruzhanov [48] and amounts to 0.96 kWh per kg. The powder composition has been retrieved from the industrial process, leading to a mass ratio WC/Co of 87%/13%. ...
Due to the toxicity associated with chromium electrodeposition, alternatives to that process are highly sought after. One of those potential alternatives is High Velocity Oxy-Fuel (HVOF). In this work, a HVOF installation is compared with chromium electrodeposition from environmental and economic points of view by using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Techno-Economic Analysis (TEA) for the evaluation. Costs and environmental impacts per piece coated are then evaluated. On an economic side, the lower labor requirements of HVOF allow one to noticeably reduce the costs (20.9% reduction) per functional unit (F.U.). Furthermore, on an environmental side, HVOF has a lower impact for the toxicity compared to electrodeposition, even if the results are a bit more mixed in other impact categories.
