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Blocks are cryptographically linked together. Blockchains are collection of blocks. A block is a collection of all the transactions with a cryptographic hash of the previous block. At the time of new block to add, a new hash is generated and recorded in recent block's header and in its next block header which created chain. By the time each block header has its previous block hash and its next block hash. This way of chain (link) of block is known as cryptographic links of blocks to validate and undertakes a consensus decision. Old blocks cannot be modified; just new block can be added in chain. New blocks are duplicated across the ledger in the distributed network as a blockchain is distributed ledger and to avoid conflicts rules are made. Simply, blockchains are distributed immutable digital ledgers of cryptographically signed transactions that are grouped into blocks. [3]
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The blockchain is a relatively new technology in the field of computer science. It has received enhanced interests in recent years for Research and Scientific Industry. As its first implementation attention is crypto-currency. Blockchain provides as an immutable distributed ledger which performs transactions with untrusted participants in a decentr...
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Context 1
... blockchain is initialized that block will always stay blocking them on forever and ever and ever for eternity it will never change. This originate all blockchain always remain first one and it has some data, previous hash with all zeros and own hash. Next block in blockchain has genesis block hash inprevious hash, its own hash and data. As in Fig. 2 , the block is the previous hash of block number two is exactly identical or is exactly block number ones hash and that is where the link comes. That is why abortion is called a chain or a blockchain because the blocks are cryptographically linked with each other through these hashes. Anything was to change in the data but hash cannot ...
Context 2
... blockchain is initialized that block will always stay blocking them on forever and ever and ever for eternity it will never change. This originate all blockchain always remain first one and it has some data, previous hash with all zeros and own hash. Next block in blockchain has genesis block hash inprevious hash, its own hash and data. As in Fig. 2 , the block is the previous hash of block number two is exactly identical or is exactly block number ones hash and that is where the link comes. That is why abortion is called a chain or a blockchain because the blocks are cryptographically linked with each other through these hashes. Anything was to change in the data but hash cannot ...
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Blockchain is an emerging technology that has shaken the financial sector, and which is already perceived as having an impact. A blockchain is a network of many interconnected nodes, both trustworthy and malicious, which can reach a consensus and generate valid data. The resulting information is packed into a block and permanently saved on the netw...
Citations
... The blockchain thus does not meet its fundamental decentralized principle among users who do not trust one another [30]. Table 1 summarizes the comparative analysis of the existing consensus algorithms for permissioned blockchain analyzed by several studies in [30], [63], [116], [26], [25], [126], [127], [128], [72]. ...
In the era of Fourth Industrial Revolution (Industry 4.0), blockchain technology emerges as an innovative solution to address the challenges of digital-based business networks, such as traceability, transparency, trust, and data authenticity. This transformative technology has shown promise across diverse domains, including finance, healthcare, and supply chain, by enabling secure data transmission and trust establishment between entities. However, blockchain technology experiences from an inherent trade-off issue between the core properties of security, decentralization and scalability in its type of network. While permissionless blockchain excel in security and decentralization, such network lack scalability and suitability for business transactions. Conversely, permissioned blockchains offer better performance but are vulnerable to cyber-attacks due to weaknesses in consensus mechanisms. Therefore, this paper provides an analysis of blockchain technology, emphasizing the pivotal role of consensus mechanisms in ensuring security and system performance. Additionally, it identifies practical threats, suggests countermeasures, and underscores the importance of resilient and secure consensus mechanisms. Furthermore, it compares and analyzes existing mechanisms for permissioned blockchains, discusses their limitations, and highlights the significance of ensuring system security and performance. Finally, it uncovers essential factors to consider when designing consensus mechanisms for specific blockchain-based applications, laying the foundation for future research in practical and secure permissioned blockchain applications.
... For this reason, a consensus comparison is made in Table 2 based on the following characteristics: type, participation, network timing, blockchain type, energy consumption, speed of transaction processing, transaction finality, scalability, and security, with some examples of blockchain applications. This comparison was made based on several research works: [11,[49][50][51][64][65][66][67][68][69][70][71][72]. We define below the main nine characteristics taken into account to prepare this comparison between the different consensus algorithms used in the energy blockchains as per our SLR: ...
Satisfying the world’s rapidly increasing demands in energy via the optimized management of available resources is becoming one of the most important research trends worldwide. When it comes to energy, it is very important to talk about decentralization, security, traceability and transparency. Thus, over the last few years, numerous research works have presented blockchain technology as the best novel business platform enabling a secure, transparent and tamper-proof energy management solution. In this paper, we conducted a systematic literature review (SLR) using the PRISMA framework of the different existing research studies related to the use of the blockchain technology in the energy sector, published between 2008 and 2021. We identified a total of 769 primary studies after intensive manual analysis and filtering, which we thoroughly assessed using various criteria to address six main research questions that covered the blockchain types, applications and platforms in the energy sector, the energy source types for which blockchain platforms are implemented, the emergent technologies that are combined to blockchain solutions, and the types of consensuses used in energy blockchains. Based on the collected survey data, we built a database to categorize the existing research works, identify research trends, and highlight knowledge gaps and potential areas for additional field study.
... Blockchain is a structure for storing data in a digital ledger with groups of valid transactions, known as blocks. It makes a consecutive chain with every block cryptographically linked with the preceding block [4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14]. Ethereum is an opensource, blockchain-centred operating system that can be utilized to create smart contract-centric apps that can run decentralized applications based on blockchain technology which uses Merkle Hash Tree and Smart Contract [4,30]. ...
... It makes a consecutive chain with every block cryptographically linked with the preceding block [4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14]. Ethereum is an opensource, blockchain-centred operating system that can be utilized to create smart contract-centric apps that can run decentralized applications based on blockchain technology which uses Merkle Hash Tree and Smart Contract [4,30]. It has solved double-spending concerns without a central entity. ...
... The cryptographic hash of the previous block, a timestamp, and transaction data is the set of data of the blocks, which are linked by encryption. Those attributes are, in essence, the sequential chronological links that can also be used so that the record cannot be retroactively changed without changing all subsequent blocks [8]. ...
Currently, the massive use of remote equipment and applications at different levels of modern society is an unprecedented reality. This trend is due to an increasing decentralization and popularization of computing and communication devices for personal use. Due to the demands imposed by environmental and professional factors, work on the virtual model, in which employees are somehow connected and interacting in a network and in a data cloud, has dazzlingly benefited from this infrastructure. The financial market is one of the sectors that favored this context, mainly providing its operations in the hands of its clients. And in this trend, electronic coins also germinated, incorporating a cryptographic procedure with key validation in linked blocks, the so-called Blockchain. But, on the one hand, the systems technology tools allow the benefit of the prompt interaction between people and institutions; on the other hand, they hide the possibility of the improper use of information. Two pillars of the configuration of current solutions are based on the Security and Reliability of Systems: either by characterizing it by the probability of its operation or failure in a safe way or by determining its functioning according to its specification. As it is an essential subject of scientific research, this paper proposes and aims to verify the adherence of Blockchain to the Reliability and Security of Systems using the Markov Model, with the specific outline of the attack strategy, the states of possible attacks, and the observation of this interaction. Due to the evidence of the data presented and its consistent result, the method proved reliable. When addressing security, he crossed the probabilities of an attack versus an honest node finding the next block. The security sensitivity is perceived as a function of a brief period between each attack attempt.
With electronic healthcare systems undergoing rapid change, optimizing the crucial process of recording physician prescriptions is a task with major implications for patient care. The power of blockchain technology and the precision of the Raft consensus algorithm are combined in this article to create a revolutionary solution for this problem. In addition to addressing these issues, the proposed framework, by focusing on the challenges associated with physician prescriptions, is a breakthrough in a new era of security and dependability for the healthcare sector. The Raft algorithm is a cornerstone that improves the diagnostic decision-making process, increases confidence in patients, and sets a new standard for robust healthcare systems. In the proposed consensus algorithm, a weighted sum of two influencing factors including the physician acceptability and inter-physicians’ reliability is used for selecting the participating physicians. An investigation is conducted to see how well the Raft algorithm performs in overcoming prescription-related roadblocks that support a compelling argument for improved patient care. Apart from its technological benefits, the proposed approach seeks to revolutionize the healthcare system by fostering trust between patients and providers. Raft’s ability to communicate presents the proposed solution as an effective way to deal with healthcare issues and ensure security.
This comprehensive review explores the synergistic intersection of blockchain technology and the Internet of Things (IoT), revealing how the fusion of these two innovative technologies is revolutionizing both network security and applications. As the IoT ecosystem expands and becomes increasingly complex, the necessity for robust and efficient security measures escalates. Herein, we elucidate how Blockchain technology, renowned for its secure, decentralized nature, can play an instrumental role in safeguarding IoT devices and networks from potential threats and breaches. We conduct an in-depth exploration of the various Blockchain-enabled IoT applications, shedding light on examples that span numerous sectors such as healthcare, supply chain, smart homes, and more. These practical implementations exemplify the enhanced security, transparency, and improved efficiency that Blockchain can introduce to the IoT landscape. This review also identifies and discusses challenges faced when integrating Blockchain with IoT, such as scalability issues and energy consumption, providing suggestions for future research and developments in this area. As the digital age advances, the fusion of Blockchain and IoT holds immense potential not only to fortify security but also to redefine conventional application models. Our analysis presents a clear trajectory of progress and innovation, offering researchers, practitioners, and stakeholder’s valuable insights into the future of Blockchain-enabled IoT.
A blockchain is a digital record that stores transactions publicly after nodes have verified them. The nodes validate each transaction, and the cryptography hash function secures the transactions. A transaction is linked by the hash value of the previous transaction. No
one can amend or alter a transaction once it is added to the blockchain, but it can be viewed publicly, bringing transparency to the system [1]. To validate a transaction, blockchain employs some proof-of-work and proof-of-stake techniques. In the previous years, the growth of blockchain innovation has demonstrated that it offers a vast range of use cases. The combination of blockchain technology and smart contracts allows for a great deal of flexibility to develop, design, and implement real world problems at a lower cost and less time than traditional third-party systems [2]. This section covers introduction of smart contracts and off-chain contracts. The section also covers the literature survey.
Blockchain has recently attracted significant academic attention in research fields beyond the financial industry. In the Internet of Things (IoT), blockchain can be used to create a decentralized, reliable, and secure environment. The use of blockchain in IoT applications is still in its early stages, particularly at the low end of the computing spectrum. As a result, the future roadmap is hazy, and several challenges and questions must be addressed. Several articles combining blockchain technology with IoT have recently been released, but they are limited to shallow technological potential discussions, with very few providing an in-depth examination of the complexities of implementing blockchain technology for IoT. Therefore, this paper aims to coherently and comprehensively provide current cutting-edge efforts in this direction. It provides a literature review of IoT and blockchain integration by examining current research issues and trends in the applications of blockchain-related approaches and technologies within the IoT security context. We have surveyed published articles from 2017 to 2021 on blockchain-based solutions for IoT security, taking into consideration different security areas and then, we have organized the available articles according to these areas. The surveyed articles have been chronologically organized in tables for better clarity. In this paper, we try to investigate the vital issues and challenges to the integration of IoT and blockchain, and then investigate the research efforts that have been conducted so far to overcome these challenges.