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Bit-rate distance product for transmission over a single optical 

Bit-rate distance product for transmission over a single optical 

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The fields of optics and photonics have experienced dramatic technical advances over the past several decades and have cemented themselves as key enabling technologies across many different industries. This paper explores past milestones, present state of the art, and future perspectives of several different topics, including: lasers, materials, de...

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... QPSK and coherent detection at 25 Gbaud; and 2) 10-Tb/s total capacity per fiber. According to Shannon [230], high signal power produces high capacity. Unfortunately, optical fiber nonlinearities limit the total signal power. The next dimension that has the potential for dramatic capacity increases is space multiplexing, i.e., transmitting independent data channels that are each on an orthogonal spatial dimension. As shown in Fig. 12, two approaches that are emerging include the transmission of independent data streams: 1) within each individual core of a special multicore fiber [239]; and 2) on orthogonal spatial modes within a few modes of a multimode fiber [240]. In both these approaches, crosstalk is a key challenge. Unique challenges for multicore systems include: 1) increasing the number of cores/modes; 2) decreasing the intercore/mode nonlinear effects; and 3) developing multicore/mode network elements. For multimode systems, mode mixing of the different LP modes is a natural occurrence which can be partially solved by utilizing multiple-input–multiple-output (MIMO) approaches; MIMO is a popular technique in radio-frequency (RF) systems and can untangle some of the crosstalk between modes using digital signal processing [240]. In terms of hardware, one area of intense R&D advances is photonic integrated circuits, which holds the promise of lower cost, higher performance, and reduced power consumption. Many of the innovations that produce better systems performance require more components that are evermore complex. For example, higher order modulation formats in coherent transceivers require multiple modulators, lasers, couplers, and balanced detectors. This scenario has benefitted greatly from advances in photonic integrated circuits on both III-V [241] and silicon [242] materials; Fig. 13 shows an example of an integrated 100-Gb/s coherent receiver. In terms of the ability to interact with light, III-V materials are generally superior. However, silicon-based photonics opens up the possibility to make use of the massive silicon manufacturing infrastructure to produce cost effective integrated photonics circuits in both data communications and telecommunications. Another exciting development has been the emergence of massive data centers that enable Internet searches and B cloud-based [ services. Data centers require large-capacity, short-distance fiber B pipes [ connecting the high-speed servers, and optical communications has enabled data centers to flourish. Indeed, a data center can employ as many as one million lasers, a truly amazing development. Also in the past 20 years there have been exciting and promising advances in the quantum information sciences. An emerging early application of this is the safely encrypted quantum key distribution (QKD) over optical fiber transmission links [243]. Complementing the transmission of information optics, we have the development of information storage in optical discs, such as CDs, DVDs, and Blu-rays [244]. These discs were introduced in 1982, and several hundreds of billions have been sold worldwide since then. In the disc players, semiconductor lasers read the information stored on the discs. These lasers number in the hundreds of millions. Computer power and optical transmission power have scaled up now, for . . . 30 years, by about a factor of 100 every 10 years. . . . And it would be foolish to predict that it will suddenly stop, although it will take amazing breakthroughs to keep it going [ [245]. The modern era of optical communications is only about 50 years old. In fact, even the original paper on optical communications predicted that communication systems using optical fiber could have B an information capacity in excess of 1 Gc/s [ [208], which has already been surpassed by five orders of magnitude. Given the technical advances and society changes wrought by our field, it is tempting to be bold about the future. A few possible scenarios that may unfold over the coming decades include, some more bold than others, the following. • Will fibers be deployed to nearly all homes and offices, providing ubiquitous 10-Gb/s bandwidth to all users? • Will optics become pervasive inside computers, providing low-cost, power-efficient, and high- capacity interconnects, potentially using silicon- photonics-based integrated chips? • Will all-optical networks be fully transparent, adaptable to operational changes, provide flexible bandwidth allocation, accommodate heterogeneous traffic, and be functionally reconfigurable in much the same way that wireless networks operate? • Will satellite communications be dominated by optical free-space links that provide high data-rate and low size-weight-power characteristics? • Will novel optical components and architectures be used to dramatically reduce the ever-growing power consumption in generating and switching of data? If past is prolog and the capacity grows by a factor of 100 every ten years (see Fig. 14), will the capacity be a billion-fold higher in 50 years? If even a fraction of that does occur, what will be the effect on society? It is exciting to speculate on the impact and also on the technologies that will enable these advances. Although this section focused specifically on communications, there are several important topics that are thematically related in terms of enabling technologies or applications focus. A brief treatment of some of these areas is described below. 1) Sensors: Optical sensors play an ever-expanding role as we are able to detect ever-smaller changes in some property of the optical wave itself. ...

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... This is due to the large energy storage capacity of such systems, owing to the large optical mode cross section, gain area and long optical path length. High-power amplifiers have a variety of applications such as in amplifying low-noise mode-locked laser pulses, continuous wave laser signals, high-power optical frequency comb generation, spectroscopy, laser detection and ranging, telecommunication (preamp, in-line and booster amplifiers), material processing and medical applications [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16] . Benchtop high-power amplifiers are necessary for many photonic systems, but as we move towards systems level miniaturization [11][12][13] , especially for applications in hostile environments, such as deep space, their size and weight become a major roadblock as they are hard to scale down and mass-produce [11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21] . ...
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... That is due to the large energy storage capacity of such systems, owing to the large optical mode and gain area and the long cavity length. Power amplifiers find variety of applications such as in amplifying low noise mode-locked lasers, CW lasers, high power optical frequency comb generation, spectroscopy, laser detection and ranging, material processing and medical applications to name a few [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14]. Benchtop high power amplifiers have been quite successful for several years, but as we move towards system level miniaturization [9][10][11][12], and applications in hostile environmentssuch as deep space, their size and weight are a major roadblock as they are hard to scale down and mass produce [9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18]. ...
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Power amplifier is becoming a critical component for integrated photonics as the integrated devices try to carve out a niche in the world of real-world applications of photonics. That is because the signal generated from an integrated device severely lacks in power which is due mainly to the small size which, although gives size and weight advantage, limits the energy storage capacity of an integrated device due to the small volume, causing it to rely on its bench-top counterpart for signal amplification downstream. Therefore, an integrated high-power signal booster can play a major role by replacing these large solid-state and fiber-based benchtop systems. For decades, large mode area (LMA) technology has played a disruptive role by increasing the signal power and energy by orders of magnitude in the fiber-based lasers and amplifiers. Thanks to the capability of LMA fiber to support significantly larger optical modes the energy storage and handling capability has significantly increased. Such an LMA device on an integrated platform can play an important role for high power applications. In this work, we demonstrate LMA waveguide based CMOS compatible watt-class power amplifier with an on-chip output power reaching ~ 1W within a footprint of ~4mm2.The power achieved is comparable and even surpasses many fiber-based amplifiers. We believe this work opens up opportunities for integrated photonics to find real world application on-par with its benchtop counterpart.
... Photonics involves cutting-edge uses of lasers, optics, fiber-optics, and electro-optical devices in numerous and diverse fields of technology-alternate energy, manufacturing, health care, telecommunication, environmental monitoring, homeland security, aerospace, solid state lighting, and many others. 2 Photonics transmits, processes, and stores information using photons rather than electrons, resulting in a massive increase in capacity and speed in information technology.On the other hand, Photonics and biology are combined in biophotonics. Biophotonics is the study of how light interacts with biological materials. ...
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... Over the past decade, the market for CMOS image sensors has grown dramatically due to advantages such as compatibility with CMOS technology, low power consumption, and low cost, especially in mobile devices and medical and military applications [1,2]. Due to the amazing development of this technology, more and more capabilities are being integrated into the smart pixels of image sensors, and every development is the basis of new commercial and scientific applications [3]. ...
... where I ph 1 is the photo-current of pixel #1, and I ph 2 is the photo-current of pixel #2. The 2D simulations are performed by a commercially available device simulator [18]. ...
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... For decades, these devices have been developed from various materials such as dielectric, crystalline, metallic, and metamaterials. They have been developed with advanced technologies depending on the wavelength and the intensity of light available [1][2][3][4]. ...
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We report that polymerization makes a robust, practically applicable multifunctional optical device with a continuous wavelength tunable over 500 nm spectral range using UV-polymerizable cholesteric liquid crystals (CLCs). It can be used as a circular polarizer generating an extremely high degree of circularly polarized light with |g| = 1.85~2.00. It can also be used for optical notch filters, bandwidth-variable (from ~28 nm to ~93 nm) bandpass filters, mirrors, and intensity-variable beam splitters. Furthermore, this CLC device shows excellent stability owing to the polymerization of CLC cells. Its performance remains constant for a long time (~2 years) after a high-temperature exposure (170 °C for 1 h) and an extremely high laser beam intensity exposure (~143 W/cm2 of CW 532 nm diode laser and ~2.98 MW/cm2 of Nd: YAG pulse laser operation for two hours, respectively). The optical properties of polymerized CLC were theoretically analyzed by Berreman’s 4 × 4 matrix method. The characteristics of this device were significantly improved by introducing an anti-reflection layer on the device. This wavelength-tunable and multifunctional device could dramatically increase optical research efficiency in various spectroscopic works. It could be applied to many instruments using visible and near-infrared wavelengths.
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... High power fiber lasers (HPFLs) are currently under intense investigations benefiting from eminent advantages such as good beam quality, high conversion efficiency, small footprint and excellent reliability [1], [2]. Thanks to the gradual availability of high-brightness Laser diodes (LDs), robust high-power fiber components and novel pumping schemes such as tandem pumping [3]- [6], the continuous-wave (CW) HPFLs have witnessed an exponential power increase and led to a variety of scientific and industrial applications [7], [8]. The primary implementation of HPFL is Ytterbiumdoped fiber laser (YDFL) [9], [10], generating up to 10-kW near-diffraction-limited CW laser and beyond [11], [12]. ...
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... Finally, the chapter portrays future prospects and foreseen improvements. 4 ...
... The interaction of an antibody with the matching antigen may be described as a key (epitope) and lock (paratope) principle and is specific to the individual molecules. A schematic of the mammal IgG antibody [52] is given in Fig. 2. 4. The fragment antigen binding (Fab) site is located in the upper domain (1) and shows a high variation between each individual antibody clone, whereas the lower domain (2) is called fragment crystallizable (Fc) site and is highly conserved within a species and antibody subtype. ...
... Further research needs to be conducted on the sophisticated etch process. 4. 5. Structures s01 -s04, highlighted in the yellow frame, offer a local back-side opening for optical sensing purposes, which are indicated by the cyan rectangles. ...
Thesis
Simulation, optimization and characterization of a photonic integrated multi-purpose sensor, comprising a novel back-side released design for lab-on-a-chip solutions in life sciences.
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