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In the last decade significant resources have been invested for the digitisation of the collections of a large number of museums and galleries worldwide. In Europe alone, 10 million EUR is annually invested in Europeana (Europeana 2014). However, as we gradually move on from “the start-up phase” of digitisation (Hughes 2004), revenue generation and...
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... users have designed their product, they can tap the button "Design is ready" on the bottom right corner to proceed (Figure 6 middle). The last two pages presented to the user, comprise the checkout process (Figure 7). In the first page, users are prompted to fill in the details of the delivery address the product should be (Figure 7 left), whilst the last page features the payment form (Figure 7 right). To align "the on-screen and in-gallery environments" as recommended for overcoming the sixth barrier of "Usability" (Figure 2) both environments include references to each other. The in-gallery environment features the four points of awareness, as examined previously, whilst the on- screen environment includes illustrations of how the application should be used in the exhibition space (Figure 4 middle). Lastly, the final barrier relates to "delivering value that meets the users' needs" (Figure 2). Delivering value is what determines whether those who start using the application will "maintain their interest" and the factor that will "sustain their drive to use [it]" ( Figure 2). Firstly, with regards to the service, the value, i.e. what the IMS offers to visitors, is communicated as clearly as possible on the flyers, as well as on the welcome page. Sample products are available at the museum, whilst photos and details of the final products are displayed both on the flyers as well as on the "Product Info" page ( Figure 6 ...
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... users have designed their product, they can tap the button "Design is ready" on the bottom right corner to proceed (Figure 6 middle). The last two pages presented to the user, comprise the checkout process (Figure 7). In the first page, users are prompted to fill in the details of the delivery address the product should be (Figure 7 left), whilst the last page features the payment form (Figure 7 right). To align "the on-screen and in-gallery environments" as recommended for overcoming the sixth barrier of "Usability" (Figure 2) both environments include references to each other. The in-gallery environment features the four points of awareness, as examined previously, whilst the on- screen environment includes illustrations of how the application should be used in the exhibition space (Figure 4 middle). Lastly, the final barrier relates to "delivering value that meets the users' needs" (Figure 2). Delivering value is what determines whether those who start using the application will "maintain their interest" and the factor that will "sustain their drive to use [it]" ( Figure 2). Firstly, with regards to the service, the value, i.e. what the IMS offers to visitors, is communicated as clearly as possible on the flyers, as well as on the welcome page. Sample products are available at the museum, whilst photos and details of the final products are displayed both on the flyers as well as on the "Product Info" page ( Figure 6 ...
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... users have designed their product, they can tap the button "Design is ready" on the bottom right corner to proceed (Figure 6 middle). The last two pages presented to the user, comprise the checkout process (Figure 7). In the first page, users are prompted to fill in the details of the delivery address the product should be (Figure 7 left), whilst the last page features the payment form (Figure 7 right). To align "the on-screen and in-gallery environments" as recommended for overcoming the sixth barrier of "Usability" (Figure 2) both environments include references to each other. The in-gallery environment features the four points of awareness, as examined previously, whilst the on- screen environment includes illustrations of how the application should be used in the exhibition space (Figure 4 middle). Lastly, the final barrier relates to "delivering value that meets the users' needs" (Figure 2). Delivering value is what determines whether those who start using the application will "maintain their interest" and the factor that will "sustain their drive to use [it]" ( Figure 2). Firstly, with regards to the service, the value, i.e. what the IMS offers to visitors, is communicated as clearly as possible on the flyers, as well as on the welcome page. Sample products are available at the museum, whilst photos and details of the final products are displayed both on the flyers as well as on the "Product Info" page ( Figure 6 ...
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... back-end application is a cloud application developed with ASP.NET (http://asp.net). The back-end application is comprised by a series of web services that the front-end application calls asynchronously (i.e. whenever needed). There are two major services provided by the back-end application. The first one is the image recognition service, which is based on the open source Computer Vision library OpenCV (opencv.org). This service receives the photograph that is captured by the user and returns the painting it matches with. The other major service performed by the back-end is the order submission service, which receives the preferences of the user (i.e. painting, product and delivery address) and submits the order to the Print-on-Demand provider. The technical solution developed in this paper was tested as a pilot at the State Museum of Contemporary Art in Thessaloniki, Greece, during the exhibition "View from my window…Aspects of 'Home' in the Russian avant-garde. Works from the Costakis collection", which was part of the 6 th Biennale of Contemporary Art in Thessaloniki, Greece. The museum visitor experience examined next, covers both the real-world interactions, as well as the user experience of the front-end application. To overcome the first barrier of the diagram in Figure 2, i.e. "Awareness", it is advised to have five points of awareness (Green 2016); in our pilot we use four such points. Three of them take place in the reception area near the ticket office. Firstly, there is a corner dedicated to the promotion of the service, comprised by a mini-stand explaining IMS and a sample product (i.e. a t-shirt featuring an artwork). Secondly, a flyer is handed to the visitors along with the ticket (Figure 3) and lastly the staff also provides a brief explanation of the service, whilst giving the flyer. The purpose of the flyer is twofold: to explain what the service offers and to inform people how they can access it (Figure 3). The last point of awareness is in the exhibition space near the artwork label, which is less detailed and serves as a reminder of the service and also as an indicator that the artwork the user is viewing can be used with IMS (Figure ...
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... people visit the application, the first page they see, is the welcome page (Figure 4 left), which informs them about the service. The flyer along with the welcome page aim to help overcome the "Easy to Understand" barrier ( Figure 2) and explain the value this application offers to visitors. The welcome page also prompts users to register in order to start using this application. Although registration presents an additional barrier, it is important as it allows us to stay in touch with visitors after they leave the museum. To reduce friction and increase the chances for people to successfully register, social login is utilised (i.e. registration with the use of social networks); the current implementation supports registration with Facebook and Google. Social login, in combination with the nature of the software being a web application, freeing users from downloading and installing a native application, but instead allowing them to access it from any Internet browser, aim to ensure that the application is "Easy to Purchase". IMS is a free application therefore in this case this barrier can be rephrased to "Easy to Obtain". To "shorten the learning curve" as advised for overcoming the fourth barrier and ensure the application is "Easy to Use" (Figure 2), the welcome page is followed by a page titled "How it works", which presents a series of illustrations aiming to explain to users how they can use the application (Figure 4 middle). The illustrations are followed by a page prompting users to "Photograph an artwork" (Figure 4 right). For museums that prohibit photography, the application could ask users to take a photo of the artwork's label and detect the painting with an Optical Character Recognition algorithm instead. When a photograph is submitted to the application, the image recognition service of the back-end is invoked and a loading indicator is presented on screen. Once the user's photograph has been uploaded and the painting recognition has been completed, then users are presented with a picture of the painting that was detected, followed by a range of products for them to choose from ( Figure 6 left), including art prints, t-shirts in white and in black, tote bags and iPhone cases for all models. Once a product has been selected, then the product designer is presented on screen, which allows the user to place the artwork on the product (Figure 6 middle). Users can set the exact position by dragging (i.e. tap and hold) the image on the product and also its scale by tapping on the "Scale Up" and "Scale Down" buttons. They can also restart the process by tapping on "Refresh" and read details about the selected product by tapping "Product Info" on the bottom left ...
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... people visit the application, the first page they see, is the welcome page (Figure 4 left), which informs them about the service. The flyer along with the welcome page aim to help overcome the "Easy to Understand" barrier ( Figure 2) and explain the value this application offers to visitors. The welcome page also prompts users to register in order to start using this application. Although registration presents an additional barrier, it is important as it allows us to stay in touch with visitors after they leave the museum. To reduce friction and increase the chances for people to successfully register, social login is utilised (i.e. registration with the use of social networks); the current implementation supports registration with Facebook and Google. Social login, in combination with the nature of the software being a web application, freeing users from downloading and installing a native application, but instead allowing them to access it from any Internet browser, aim to ensure that the application is "Easy to Purchase". IMS is a free application therefore in this case this barrier can be rephrased to "Easy to Obtain". To "shorten the learning curve" as advised for overcoming the fourth barrier and ensure the application is "Easy to Use" (Figure 2), the welcome page is followed by a page titled "How it works", which presents a series of illustrations aiming to explain to users how they can use the application (Figure 4 middle). The illustrations are followed by a page prompting users to "Photograph an artwork" (Figure 4 right). For museums that prohibit photography, the application could ask users to take a photo of the artwork's label and detect the painting with an Optical Character Recognition algorithm instead. When a photograph is submitted to the application, the image recognition service of the back-end is invoked and a loading indicator is presented on screen. Once the user's photograph has been uploaded and the painting recognition has been completed, then users are presented with a picture of the painting that was detected, followed by a range of products for them to choose from ( Figure 6 left), including art prints, t-shirts in white and in black, tote bags and iPhone cases for all models. Once a product has been selected, then the product designer is presented on screen, which allows the user to place the artwork on the product (Figure 6 middle). Users can set the exact position by dragging (i.e. tap and hold) the image on the product and also its scale by tapping on the "Scale Up" and "Scale Down" buttons. They can also restart the process by tapping on "Refresh" and read details about the selected product by tapping "Product Info" on the bottom left ...
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... product designer page, presented the greatest challenge in the design process of the front-end application. All other controls utilised, e.g. social login, or the checkout process described next, are common amongst other applications, therefore users are already familiar with them. Controls similar to the product designer page are more uncommon, subsequently a special effort was made during the design and development of this page, in order for it to be "Easy to use" (e.g. clean design, use of gestures) to overcome the fourth barrier of the diagram in Figure ...
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... museum visitor experience examined next, covers both the real-world interactions, as well as the user experience of the front-end application. To overcome the first barrier of the diagram in Figure 2, i.e. "Awareness", it is advised to have five points of awareness (Green 2016); in our pilot we use four such points. Three of them take place in the reception area near the ticket office. ...
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... people visit the application, the first page they see, is the welcome page (Figure 4 left), which informs them about the service. The flyer along with the welcome page aim to help overcome the "Easy to Understand" barrier ( Figure 2) and explain the value this application offers to visitors. The welcome page also prompts users to register in order to start using this application. ...
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... is a free application therefore in this case this barrier can be rephrased to "Easy to Obtain". To "shorten the learning curve" as advised for overcoming the fourth barrier and ensure the application is "Easy to Use" (Figure 2), the welcome page is followed by a page titled "How it works", which presents a series of illustrations aiming to explain to users how they can use the application (Figure 4 middle). The illustrations are followed by a page prompting users to "Photograph an artwork" (Figure 4 right). ...
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... similar to the product designer page are more uncommon, subsequently a special effort was made during the design and development of this page, in order for it to be "Easy to use" (e.g. clean design, use of gestures) to overcome the fourth barrier of the diagram in Figure 2. ...
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... the first page, users are prompted to fill in the details of the delivery address the product should be (Figure 7 left), whilst the last page features the payment form (Figure 7 right). To align "the on-screen and in-gallery environments" as recommended for overcoming the sixth barrier of "Usability" (Figure 2) both environments include references to each other. The in-gallery environment features the four points of awareness, as examined previously, whilst the onscreen environment includes illustrations of how the application should be used in the exhibition space (Figure 4 middle). ...
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... in-gallery environment features the four points of awareness, as examined previously, whilst the onscreen environment includes illustrations of how the application should be used in the exhibition space (Figure 4 middle). Lastly, the final barrier relates to "delivering value that meets the users' needs" (Figure 2). Delivering value is what determines whether those who start using the application will "maintain their interest" and the factor that will "sustain their drive to use [it]" ( Figure 2). ...
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... the final barrier relates to "delivering value that meets the users' needs" (Figure 2). Delivering value is what determines whether those who start using the application will "maintain their interest" and the factor that will "sustain their drive to use [it]" ( Figure 2). Firstly, with regards to the service, the value, i.e. what the IMS offers to visitors, is communicated as clearly as possible on the flyers, as well as on the welcome page. ...
Citations
... Whereas tracking international audience engagement may benefit the British Museum -in 2019 64% of their visitors were international tourists -this is less true of the Linen Hall Library (Bailey 2023). GLAM organisations have consistently struggled to monetise their online audiences (Anderson 2018, 91), with the profitability of image licensing being repeatedly questioned (Grosvenor 2018;Tanner 2004), and print on demand services remaining the reserve of large institutions (Valeonti et al. 2019;Valeonti et al. 2018). To start monetising online audiences in this way requires a sustained investment in digital infrastructure, with an online shop also necessitating large upfront costs. ...
Many heritage and cultural professionals have emphasised the ability of online content to reach beyond museums’ traditional audiences, yet one of the largest surveys to date shows no significant change in the demographic breakdown of online and on-site visitors. This paper aims to investigate the discrepancy between the data and the narrative, using two case studies to illustrate the pitfalls of using common social media metrics such as ‘views’, ‘likes’, and ‘shares’. Drawing from the authors’ previous sector-wide study, the paper highlights what shapes these numbers, and questions how useful they are as a measure of ‘audience engagement’. Finally, it looks to computational methods to explore nuanced alternatives that could supersede these metrics in the coming decade.
... However, some museums do not offer complimentary admission. In Tate's case, the revenues were used to pay for a portion of the digitization procedure [56]. Approximately 800 museums and libraries have open data for online users who desire to access, share, and reuse their collections. ...
... In addition, museums generate revenue from digital collections without incurring initial costs. This system has thus far been evaluated in art museums, but it can be expanded to all museums [56]. ...
Collections are the heart of museums, born for anyone's benefit. In order to ensure people enjoy collections, museums operate as the stewards of items to preserve them for today and future generations. Due to the growing technological improvements and the advent of the Internet, collections have been made available for the audience's benefit, both offline and online. This paper aims to provide the reader with a general picture of the matter. For this purpose, it illustrates the development of digitiza-tion since its first steps, when cultural institutions started approaching the usage of computers in the 1960s. Then, this study focuses on the main advantages and disadvantages of digitization. For instance, this practice contributes to preserving items through digital surrogates. Additionally, collections are made widely accessible-albeit virtually-thereby democratizing them. Nevertheless, it is argued that digital content might trigger the loss of the "aura" typically associated with seeing original items due to their uniqueness. Furthermore, digitization is a resource and time-consuming process whose outcome is prone to incurring the phenomenon of rapid "technological quicksand." Finally, this study deals with revenue streams from digital content, such as merchandise and image licensing sale.
... Rather the impact of heritage organisations is now additionally assessed through the number of applications built up on 51 The Heritage Lottery Fund's policy allows however for some flexibility, and recognises potential exemptions in the context of colonial collections and/or where other sensitivities need to be considered (The National Lottery Heritage Fund, 2020). (Valeonti et al., 2018), or even brand licensing (Kapsalis, 2016: 29-30). Case studies also demonstrate how economic value could be created through data-driven use of heritage collections by third parties (Terras et al., 2021: 5-6). ...
Open Access to cultural heritage, also known as ‘Open Galleries, Libraries, Archives, and Museums’ (Open GLAM), refers to a concept that asks heritage organisations to make, whenever legally possible, their digitised collections available online as open and interoperable data sets. So far, the discourse on Open Access to cultural heritage has primarily focussed on major art galleries. This thesis enriches the research and the discourse on Open Access to cultural heritage by focussing on the perspectives of organisations which understand archiving as a form of activism: Social Movement Archives. I ask: What does and what could Open Access to cultural heritage mean in the context of Social Movement Archives? Through Participatory Action Research (PAR) with the Marx Memorial Library London (MML), seven interviews with Social Movement Archives practitioners and a critical reading of the academic- and grey literature on Open GLAM, I investigate the digitisation and Open Access politics of Social Movement Archives, as crystallised in their missions, digitisation projects and ethical and legal practices. Crucially, I highlight the relevance of Social Movement Archives as sites for questioning and reflecting on institutionalised archival theory and praxis. This thesis offers a critical intervention in Open GLAM through the microcosm of Social Movement Archives. Throughout this thesis I demonstrate a certain, while not complete, incompatibility of Open GLAM with the political mandate of Social Movement Archives and the practical realities they operate in. I argue to move towards a social justice framework for Open Access to cultural heritage. The basis for the framework is an enhanced understanding of the archival principle of provenance, grounded in affective responsibilities towards collections’ stakeholders. Due to the recognition of digital archival collections as means for political action a social justice framework also assesses the positive and negative impact of Open Access in relation to social justice.
... Sustaining funding has always been one of the main challenges for museums and galleries [1] with the recent COVID-19 pandemic severely aggravating the financial health of cultural heritage organisations. In order to survive financially, museums and galleries have been forced to turn to solutions of last resort, such as redundancies [2,3] and even deaccessions [4,5]. ...
Non-fungible tokens (NFTs) make it technically possible for digital assets to be owned and traded, introducing the concept of scarcity in the digital realm for the first time. Resulting from this technical development, this paper asks the question, do they provide an opportunity for fundraising for galleries, libraries, archives and museums (GLAM), by selling ownership of digital copies of their collections? Although NFTs in their current format were first invented in 2017 as a means for game players to trade virtual goods, they reached the mainstream in 2021, when the auction house Christie’s held their first-ever sale exclusively for an NFT of a digital image, that was eventually sold for a record 69 million USD. The potential of NFTs to generate significant revenue for artists and museums by selling effectively a cryptographically signed copy of a digital image (similar to real-world limited editions, which are signed and numbered copies of a given artwork), has sparked the interest of the financially deprived museum and heritage sector with world-renowned institutions such as the Uffizi Gallery and the Hermitage Museum, having already employed NFTs in order to raise funds. Concerns surrounding the environmental impact of blockchain technology and the rise of malicious projects, exploiting previously digitised heritage content made available through OpenGLAM licensing, have attracted criticism over the speculative use of the technology. In this paper, we present the current state of affairs in relation to NFTs and the cultural heritage sector, identifying challenges, whilst highlighting opportunities that they create for revenue generation, in order to help address the ever-increasing financial challenges of galleries and museums.
... Among current efforts to address this challenge Print-on-Demand services are introduced for creating and purchasing products featuring the galleries and museum's artworks (Gorgels, 2013;Simal, 2005). Α different approach that integrates Print-on-Demand automation with currently available ICT technologies (including image recognition and progressive web applications) to generate revenue from digitisation is the Infi nite Museum Store (IMS) (Valeonti et al., 2018). ...
Total integration of social media and internet into daily life of the young people is the most distinct demographic characteristics of the Generation Z (born between 1995 and 2015). For Cultural and Creative Industries and Institutions in order to engage with this audience efficiently, their business models have to consider social media and more participative approach. The paper addresses the challenges and opportunities that face cultural institutions by analysing and assessing the business models related to new internet solutions. The paper provides a fresh review of the business models in which the author examines the new business model concepts through CCII subject-matter lenses. Discussed case-studies show generally successful result in activating Generation Z audience participation in cultural activities. While trying to understand limitations of the cultural institutions position and motivation towards social media and generally mobile internet, the paper raises critical implications of the pervasive internet in the CCII area.
... image recognition and progressive web applications) to provide a mobile print-on-demand solution for all museums with digitised collections is the Infinite Museum Store (IMS). In (Valeonti et al., 2018a) we presented the technical aspects and innovation features of IMS, as well as the results of a pilot study held at the State Museum of Contemporary Art (SMCA) in Thessaloniki, Greece, which demonstrated a significant potential for generating revenue from digitisation. Based on IMS, this paper examines mobile print-ondemand as an alternative solution for monetising digitisation, also exploring ways that smaller, not as well-resourced museums, can take advantage of ondemand printing to generate revenue from their digitised collections. ...
... The widespread wave of digitisation in Europe and internationally, with initiatives such as Europeana, investing millions every year for digitising museum collections (Europeana, 2014), has resulted in thousands of museums now owning a significant wealth of data, i.e. their digitised collections. With the financial challenges of cultural heritage institutions steadily increasing in the last few years (Valeonti et al., 2018a), it can be argued that, as a resource, digitised collections are currently underutilised with regards to revenue generation; at present, monetisation is limited mostly to image fees, with museums either selling image licenses directly and processing requests inhouse or outsourcing operations to companies such as Bridgeman Images. https://mw19.mwconf.org/paper/examining-mobile-print-on-demand-as…image-licensing-for-monetising-digitisation-to-promote-openglam/ ...
... custom hardware and software). In our publication titled, "Reaping the Benefits of Digitisation: Pilot study exploring revenue generation from digitised collections through technological innovation" (Valeonti et al., 2018a), we examined the technical aspects and innovation features of IMS, sharing also the results of a pilot study held at the State Museum of Contemporary Art in Thessaloniki, Greece. The pilot demonstrated the potential for generating revenue from digitised collections through novel mobile solutions. ...
Although studies have demonstrated that OpenGLAM provides numerous benefits to participant institutions, such as the dissemination of collections and increased sponsorship opportunities (Kapsalis, 2016; Kelly, 2013), the movement’s adoption remains limited. For museums and galleries, the fear of losing image fees, poses as one of the main barriers for participation (Kapsalis, 2016), since image licensing remains the most widely adopted method for monetising digitisation, despite the fact that its profitability has repeatedly been questioned (Tanner, 2004; Grosvenor, 2018). On-demand printing provides an alternative for generating revenue from digitised collections; however, print-on-demand solutions for museums appear to have stalled in the last decade, remaining almost exclusively a privilege of the well-resourced institutions. Α radically different implementation that takes advantage of emerging technologies (i.e. image recognition and progressive web applications) to provide a mobile print-on-demand solution for all museums with digitised collections is the Infinite Museum Store (IMS). In (Valeonti et al., 2018a) we presented the technical aspects and innovation features of IMS, as well as the results of a pilot study held at the State Museum of Contemporary Art (SMCA) in Thessaloniki, Greece, which demonstrated a significant potential for generating revenue from digitisation. Based on IMS, this paper examines mobile print-on-demand as an alternative solution for monetising digitisation, also exploring ways that smaller, not as well-resourced museums, can take advantage of on-demand printing to generate revenue from their digitised collections. With museums claiming that it is a "challenge . . . to keep on top of the large numbers of [image] requests” (Smith, 2009), developing alternative ways to monetise digitisation would not only allow more institutions to join OpenGLAM, but it would also contribute to improving their profitability.
... image recognition and progressive web applications) to provide a mobile print-on-demand solution for all museums with digitised collections is the Infinite Museum Store (IMS). In ( Valeonti et al., 2018a) we presented the technical aspects and innovation features of IMS, as well as the results of a pilot study held at the State Museum of Contemporary Art (SMCA) in Thessaloniki, Greece, which demonstrated a significant potential for generating revenue from digitisation. Based on IMS, this paper examines mobile print-ondemand as an alternative solution for monetising digitisation, also exploring ways that smaller, not as well-resourced museums, can take advantage of ondemand printing to generate revenue from their digitised collections. ...
... The widespread wave of digitisation in Europe and internationally, with initiatives such as Europeana, investing millions every year for digitising museum collections (Europeana, 2014), has resulted in thousands of museums now owning a significant wealth of data, i.e. their digitised collections. With the financial challenges of cultural heritage institutions steadily increasing in the last few years ( Valeonti et al., 2018a), it can be argued that, as a resource, digitised collections are currently underutilised with regards to revenue generation; at present, monetisation is limited mostly to image fees, with museums either selling image licenses directly and processing requests inhouse or outsourcing operations to companies such as Bridgeman Images. https://mw19.mwconf.org/paper/examining-mobile-print-on-demand-as…image-licensing-for-monetising-digitisation-to-promote-openglam/ ...
... It was initially created for the Met's redesigned audio guide service. As explained in ( Valeonti et al., 2018a) several measures were taken to address each barrier identified by Mann and Tung ( Figure 5) individually. Overall, IMS during the pilot had a conversion rate of 2%, with regards to the visitors who registered to IMS, divided by those who submitted an order (Valeonti et al., 2018a). ...
The importance of art is indisputable, however access to it remains limited. The Internet and the digitisation programmes of institutions around the world have increased access to art, enabling Internet users to view thousands of artworks. However, accessibility is defined not only as the ability to view artworks, but also to understand, appreciate and use them. The platform developed in the scope of this thesis provides access to art by taking advantage of two phenomena of the 21st Century: crowdsourcing and gamification. Crowdsourcing enables platforms with limited resources to harness the work of volunteers and drive content development, whilst gamification provides the incentive system to motivate participation. Although numerous research projects combine crowdsourcing with gamification, only a small number of them involve the fine arts. Crowdsourcing artworks raises challenges relating to copyright, but also to motivation, as contributors tend not to upload their own content. This thesis documents development of USEUM.org: an on-line art museum that enables people to view, understand, appreciate and use in numerous ways 82,000 artworks from the Renaissance until today by 10,000 artists, out of whom 1,400 are contemporary artists from 105 countries. USEUM demonstrates that an on-line platform can increase access to art by utilising crowdsourcing and gamification. This thesis shows that the area of research involving these phenomena and the accessibility of art has been understudied. The contribution of this thesis is that, by developing USEUM.org, the challenges and the benefits of utilising crowdsourcing and gamification for the fine arts are documented and recommendations are made for both current and future developments in the field, for artists, institutions, and those building online crowdsourcing platforms. Finally, this thesis contributes to insights on the impact that trends in copyright and licensing, such as the open content movement, have on the accessibility of art.
The importance of access to intellectual property rights (IPR) protected subject-matter in two crucial areas – public health, and educational and cultural engagement – has been extensively demonstrated during the COVID-19 pandemic. Although they involve separate legal areas, patent and copyright, the common thread linking the two is intellectual property's difficult relationship with access in the public interest. This paper examines the tensions caused by access barriers, the tools used to reduce them and their effectiveness. It is clear that the access barriers magnified by COVID-19 are not restricted to narrow or specific contexts but are widespread. They are created by, and are a feature of, our existing IPR frameworks. Open movements provide limited remedies because they are not designed to, nor can adequately address the wide range of access barriers necessary to promote the public interest. Existing legislative mechanisms designed to remove access barriers similarly fail to effectively remedy access needs. These existing options are premised on the assumption that there is a singular “public” motivated by homogenous “interests”, which fails to reflect the plurality and cross-border reality of the public(s) interest(s) underpinning the welfare goals of IPR. We conclude that a systemic re-evaluation is required and call for positive and equitable legal measures protective of the public(s) interest(s) to be built within IPR frameworks that also address non-IPR barriers. The current pandemic and development of a “new normal” provides a crucial opportunity to comprehensively consider the public(s) interest(s), not just during a global health crisis, but on an ongoing basis.
Ever since the Rijksmuseum pioneered the OpenGLAM movement in 2011, releasing to the public domain images of artworks in its collection, several other museums have followed its lead, including the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the Finnish National Gallery. Although studies have demonstrated that OpenGLAM provides numerous benefits to museums, ranging from the dissemination of their collections to increased sponsorship opportunities, the movement’s adoption remains limited. One of the main barriers for joining OpenGLAM is the “fear of losing image licensing revenue”, as participant museums have yet to invent new business models to recover lost image fees. Current efforts to address this challenge include Rijksmuseum’s Rijksstudio, a Print-on-Demand service for creating and purchasing products featuring the museum’s artworks. However, Rijksstudio is very similar to existing Print-on-Demand solutions for museums, which have barely evolved over the last decade and, subsequently, it shares their limitations (e.g. offering wall art products only). Α radically different approach that integrates Print-on-Demand automation with emerging technologies (i.e. image recognition and progressive web applications) to generate revenue from digitisation is the Infinite Museum Store (IMS). In [citation] we presented the technical aspects and innovation features of IMS, as well as the results of a pilot study held at the State Museum of Contemporary Art (SMCA) in Thessaloniki, Greece, which demonstrated its significant potential for generating revenue from digitised collections. This paper examines IMS from a business model perspective. It focuses on aspects such as viability, maintenance and long-term sustainability, and investigates ways technical innovation can be applied and utilised as a business model that generates revenue from digitisation, helping promote wider adoption of OpenGLAM.
