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Assistant reproduction technologies are in constant evolution, among them the artificial insemi-nation (AI). AI has been successfully used in pigs for decades, especially to improve boar efficiency and productivity. Lately, swine AI has taken on a new lease of life since efficient AI is essential for solving future challenges in the porcine industr...
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![Fig. 3 Pregnancy [Left Y-axis, represented (%) in black bars] and...](publication/330922928/figure/fig2/AS:723517578428418@1549511441803/Pregnancy-Left-Y-axis-represented-in-black-bars-and-number-of-piglets-born-per_Q320.jpg)
Abstract Background The aim of this study was to evaluate the reproductive performance of a new artificial insemination (AI) device specifically designed for gilts (Deep cervical AI, Dp-CAI) by means of which the sperm is deposited deeply in the cervix (8 cm more cranial than in traditional cervical insemination-CAI). New AI techniques have arisen...
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... Keuntungan pemanfaatan teknik Inseminasi buatan salah satunya mampu menurunkan tingkat risiko penularan penyakit yang lebih kecil daripada sistem perkawinan alami seperti halnya penyebaran penyakit ASF (. Soriano-Úbeda et al., 2013). Pencegahan penyakit yang dilakukan melalui inseminasi buatan antara lain sebelum pengumpulan semen, semua peralatan yang digunakan dan khususnya bahan yang bersentuhan dengan semen harus disterilkan sesuai dengan prosedur higienis yang dilakukan secara rutin dan peralatan yang tersedia di setiap balai inseminasi buatan. ...
The purpose of writing this review is to determine the role of reproductive technology in increasing the population of pigs after the African Swine Fever (ASF) outbreak. The method used in writing this review is to search for published research articles using Google search and Science direct with the keywords African swine fever and Artificial Insemination (AI). The results of this review show that ASF can reduce the population due to the high mortality rate, ASF can be transmitted through the reproductive organs but this can be overcome by utilizing IB reproductive technology. In addition, AI reproductive technology is also one of the reproductive technologies that can be used to increase the livestock population after the ASF outbreak. Based on the review, it can be ensured that artificial insemination reproductive technology is able to prevent ASF transmission and increase livestock populations after the ASF outbreak.
... Sin embargo, no se relata cómo se realizó el procedimiento de inseminación (Bowen, 1969;Pickett and Voss, 1999;Pickett et al., 2000;Allen, 2005). Pese a lo interesante de esta historia, no fue hasta 1784 cuando el italiano Lázzaro Spallanzani comunicó la primera IA realizada con éxito en mamíferos, concretamente en perro (Mendiola et al., 2005;Aurich, 2012;Soriano-Úbeda et al., 2013;Ombelet and Van Robays, 2015). En el caso de los équidos, si bien Hunter en Estados Unidos en 1799, Repiquet en Francia en 1885 y Heape en Introducción 21 1898 en Gran Bretaña (Morel, 1999) utilizaron la IA en yeguas, no fue hasta principios del siglo XX cuando el ruso Ivanoff realizó experimentos controlados de IA en caballos (Allen, 2005). ...
... Artificial insemination (AI) is the mostused reproduction biotechnology in the swine industry (RIESENBECK, 2011;SORIANO-ÚBEDA et al., 2013;WABERSKI et al., 2019). Different methods have been developed over the years, but currently cervical artificial insemination (CAI) and intrauterine artificial insemination (IUAI) are used commercially. ...
... In CAI, also known as traditional AI, a catheter of approximately 50-60 cm in length is placed in the posterior cervix and the insemination dose (ID) is deposited in the cervix's lumen (SORIANO-ÚBEDA et al., 2013;BORTOLOZZO et al., 2015;ROCA et al., 2016). For this technique, IDs containing 1.3-4 billion sperm cells (mostly 2.5-4 billion) extended in a total volume of 70-100 mL are used depending on the region or country (SORIANO-ÚBEDA et al., 2013;BORTOLOZZO et al., 2015;KNOX, 2016;ROCA et al., 2016;WABERSKI et al., 2019). ...
... In CAI, also known as traditional AI, a catheter of approximately 50-60 cm in length is placed in the posterior cervix and the insemination dose (ID) is deposited in the cervix's lumen (SORIANO-ÚBEDA et al., 2013;BORTOLOZZO et al., 2015;ROCA et al., 2016). For this technique, IDs containing 1.3-4 billion sperm cells (mostly 2.5-4 billion) extended in a total volume of 70-100 mL are used depending on the region or country (SORIANO-ÚBEDA et al., 2013;BORTOLOZZO et al., 2015;KNOX, 2016;ROCA et al., 2016;WABERSKI et al., 2019). Considering that females are inseminated two or three times, a total of 2.6-12 billion sperm cells are used per estrus. ...
The application of the intrauterine artificial insemination (IUAI) technique allows optimization of a swine production system due to the reductions in volume and number of sperm cells in the insemination dose, and by reducing the time taken to perform the insemination. However, IUAI is not recommended for gilts due to the difficulty of intrauterine cannula passage through the cervix. This difficulty is associated mainly with the fact that the reproductive tract is smaller in gilts than in pluriparous females. However, few studies have evaluated the application of IUAI in gilts. In these studies, there are variations in approach concerning the definition of the success rate for cannula passage through the cervix, the type of cannula and the body characteristics of the gilts used, making it difficult to extrapolate the recommendation for the use of IUAI in gilts. Considering the evidence that such characteristics influence or even determine the success of the application of IUAI, there is a necessity for an understanding of the influence of these factors in the improvement and later application of the technique. Gilts represent about 15-20% of the breeding group, and the use of IUAI could optimize the processes of insemination on farms. The approach used in this review highlights the aspects that could aid in structuring further studies for improving IUAI in gilts, allowing its use on commercial farms.
... Of these, PCAI is considered the best alternative in farm conditions due to its simplicity, effectiveness and reproductive performance [7,8]. This method consists of depositing semen in the uterine body [through special device consisting of a cannula (inner tube) inserted in a catheter (outer tube)] [10] before the uterine horn bifurcation thus avoiding the cervical barrier to sperm transport [11]. By contrast, in the CAI method, sperm deposition occurs directly in the cervix. ...
Abstract Background The aim of this study was to evaluate the reproductive performance of a new artificial insemination (AI) device specifically designed for gilts (Deep cervical AI, Dp-CAI) by means of which the sperm is deposited deeply in the cervix (8 cm more cranial than in traditional cervical insemination-CAI). New AI techniques have arisen in recent decades in the porcine industry, such as post-cervical artificial insemination (PCAI), which involves depositing the sperm in the body of the uterus [through a catheter (outer tube)-cannula (inner tube)] rather than by CAI. Although the PCAI method has been successfully applied in farm conditions to reduce sperm doses without impairing the reproductive performance, this technique has limitations in gilts mainly because of the difficulty involved in introducing the inner cannula through the cranial part of the cervix. For this reason, the Dp-CAI method described herein may be considered as an alternative to CAI and PCAI methods in gilts. Results Gilts were divided in two experimental groups: 1) Dp-CAI: gilts (n = 1166) inseminated using 1.5 × 109 sperm/45 mL; 2) CAI (as a control group): gilts (n = 130) inseminated using 2.5 × 109 sperm/85 mL. The Dp-CAI method was successfully applied in 88.90% of the gilts, with no differences detected between gilts with 1 or 2 previous oestrus cycles, although the catheter could be introduced more deeply in 2 oestrus gilts (P
... Traditionally, AI was performed in sows, following manual heat detection, by cervical semen deposition (CAI) with 2e3 billion spermatozoa in an 80e100 mL dose with two inseminations on each day of oestrus. However, this AI method is gradually being replaced by new strategies which aim to deposit the semen closer to the site of fertilization while using a lower volume and number of cells (reviewed by Soriano-Úbeda et al., 2013 [6]). Among them, the post-cervical insemination method (PCAI), also known as intrauterine, involves deposition of the spermatozoa in the uterine body, after the cervix and just before the uterine bifurcation, and reduces the number of spermatozoa used to one billion while maintaining the fertilization results obtained with CAI [7]. ...
... Most of the spermatozoa are lost during insemination and on their way through the uterus [6,7]. The main mechanisms for these losses during and after AI are the influx of leukocytes into the lumen of the uterus as well as backflow. ...
Artificial insemination (AI) is the single most important assisted reproductive technique devised to facilitate the genetic improvement of livestock. In the swine industry, it has broadly replaced natural service over the last number of decades which has been made possible by the high pregnancy rates and litter sizes obtainable with semen extended, up to, and sometimes beyond 5 d. Central to achieving good reproductive performance is the ability of boar studs to monitor semen quality, the basis of which has long been the assessment of sperm motility by subjective and, more recently, by more objective computerised systems. In this review, the literature on the relationship between sperm motility and kinematic parameters and field fertility is summarised. We discuss how this relationship is dependent on factors such as the viscosity of the media and the use of standard operating procedures. Emerging evidence is discussed regarding the importance of sperm rheotaxis and thigmotaxis as long-distance sperm guidance mechanisms, which enable motile functional spermatozoa to avoid the backflow of fluid, mucus and semen from the sow’s uterus in the hours post AI, facilitating the establishment of sperm reservoirs in the oviducts. The literature on the use of microfluidics in studying sperm rheotaxis in vitro is also summarised, and we discuss how these systems, when combined with techniques such as lensless microscopy, have the potential to offer more physiological assessments of the swimming patterns of boar spermatozoa. Finally, possible future avenues of further investigation are proposed.
... Regarding the last mentioned factor, the devices routinely used for porcine AI have changed since the early days of the technique. In general terms, the devices consist of a tube (~50e60 cm length) or catheter, ending in a soft tip of differing shape [8] in order to deposit a large number of sperm per sow/gilt in oestrus [usually 1.5 to 4 billion (x 10 9 ) sperm cells in a volume of 80e100 mL, depending on the country/area] [4] in the anterior cervix (cervical AI-CAI). However, this AI method was modified about 15 years ago when post-cervical AI (PCAI), also called intrauterine AI, began to be used on farms [9]. ...
... Nº of inseminated animals sperm loss and selection within the uterus are known but others remain to be elucidated [30]. Part of the sperm loss procedure may be explained by two mechanisms: the influx of polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) into the uterine lumen [31], and backflow [8]. Phagocytosis of the spermatozoa by PMNs has been widely described in swine [32e34]. ...
The porcine industry is of great importance worldwide, and so any technological innovation in one or more of the associated production areas is of interest for meat production. Among such innovations in the reproduction area, post-cervical or intrauterine artificial insemination (PCAI) has emerged as a new approach in artificial insemination (AI). PCAI is gradually replacing traditional cervical insemination (CAI), particularly in countries with intensive pig production industries. This type of insemination, which deposits the semen in the body of the uterus (as opposed to traditional cervical deposition), is increasingly used in the field due to its simplicity and the numerous advantages that it provides at production level (e.g. reduced number of sperm, less time required to perform insemination and faster genetic improvement) and, consequently, from an economic point of view. In addition, since its inception, PCAI has been combined with other reproductive biotechnologies, such as the use of frozen-thawed sperm, fixed-time AI or sperm-mediated gene transfer. However, despite its wide acceptance and application, new approaches for increasing the efficiency of PCAI are constantly being sought, such as the adjustment and standardization in sperm numbers, the conservation of the PCAI semen dose, its association with other biotechnologies (sex-sorted sperm) or its efficacy in young (nulliparous and primiparous) females.
... In the past two decades, new strategies have been developed aimed at depositing the semen closer to the site of fertilization using a lower volume and number of cells than in C-AI (reviewed by [4]). Such methods avoid the transit of spermatozoa through part of the female tract, ensuring that an optimal functional sperm population reaches the oviduct at the time of ovulation. ...
Post-cervical (pC) artificial insemination (AI) has been successfully developed for application in multiparous sows, although it has proved problematic in gilts. This study analyzes the use of pC-AI in gilts by two experiments. In the first experiment, the efficiency of pC-AI in gilts was evaluated using a multi-ring multiparous catheter (MpC), which led to 23.1% of the gilts being successfully inseminated. In gilts where insemination was not possible using an MpC, two alternatives were applied before a second attempt at insemination: 1) Vetrabutin Chlorhydrate (VC) was intramuscularly injected in order to relax the cervix; or 2) Warm extender (WE) was deposited in the cervix to modify the cervical muscle dynamics. After the application of these treatments, the success rates achieved with the MpC were 34.2% and 23.8% for VC and WE, respectively. No statistically significant differences were found in the reproductive parameters measured [farrowing (%), litter size and fecundity index] between the use of MpC, or the MpC combined with VC or WE, compared with gilts inseminated by cervical AI (control group). In the second experiment, new catheters based on the anatomical characteristics of gilts (GpC) were used, and the rate of successful pC-AI application were compared (experiment 2a): a) MpC: control; b) GpC1: multi-ring catheter of Ø 16 mm and inner cannula of Ø 3.5 mm; c) GpC2: a multi-ring catheter of Ø with an inner cannula of Ø 2.5 mm. The highest rate of successful cannula penetration was reached in the GpC2 group (60.3%) followed by GpC1 (37.0%) and MpC (19.6%) (p < 0.05). There were no differences in the above mentioned reproductive parameters using the three catheters compared with cervical AI method (control group). Moreover, prior cervical AI did not improve subsequent pC-AI application 24 h later (experiment 2b). In conclusion, Vetrabutin Chlorhydrate, warm extender or the new catheters can be considered as useful tools for improving the success rate of pC-AI technique in gilts.
... The insemination of large numbers of sperm translates into a selection of a few highly fertile sperm able to reach and interact with the oviduct and subsequently with oocytes. However, although some factors have been identified as fundamental for spermatozoa to reach the sperm reservoir (revised by Soriano-Úbeda et al. 40 ), how exactly oviductal cells select the best sperm for successful fertilization remains unknown. ...
The interaction of oviductal epithelial cells (OECs) with the spermatozoa has beneficial effects on the sperm functions. The aim of this study is to evaluate the in vitro fertilizing capacity of incubating spermatozoa previously selected by density gradient in OEC and determinate some sperm characteristics that could explain the results obtained. In this study, we assessed in vitro fertilization (IVF), tyrosine phosphorylation, phosphatidylserine translocation, nuclear DNA fragmentation, and chromatin decondensation. Three experimental sperm groups, previously selected by Percoll gradient, were established according to the origin of the sperm used for IVF: (i) W30 group: spermatozoa were incubated with oocytes in the absence of OEC; (ii) NB group: after sperm incubation in OEC, the unbound spermatozoa were incubated with oocytes, in the absence of OEC; and (iii) B group: after sperm incubation with OEC, the bound spermatozoa were incubated with oocytes in the OEC plates. The results showed that sperm from the NB group led to a lower IVF yield, accompanied by low penetration rates (NB: 19.6%, B: 94.9%, and W30: 62.9%; P < 0.001) and problems of nuclear decondensation. Moreover, higher levels of tyrosine phosphorylation were observed in the NB group compared with the W30 and B groups (NB: 58.7%, B: 2.5%, and W30: 4.5%; P < 0.01). A similar trend was observed in phosphatidylserine translocation (NB: 93.7%, B: 5.7%, and W30: 44.2%; P < 0.01). These results demonstrate that the OEC exerts a rigorous degree of sperm selection, even within an already highly selected population of spermatozoa, and can capture the best functional spermatozoa for fertilization.
... From the billions of sperm inseminated only thousands reach the uterotubal junction (UTJ) and caudal isthmus [1,2], where they establish the sperm reservoir. The influx of polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) and retrograde flow (backflow) after insemination are two of the main known mechanisms by which sperm are cleansed from the genital tract, as reviewed by Soriano-Úbeda et al. [3]. Although it is not clear how sperm are selected, what seems evident is that the female reproductive system and the properties of the sperm themselves are involved in the natural process of sperm selection on their way to the fertilization site [4]. ...
Once deposited in the female tract, sperm face a series of challenges that must be overcome to ensure the presence of an adequate normal sperm population close to the site of fertilization. Our aim was to evaluate the influence of the uterine milieu on boar sperm morphology. In experiment 1, sperm morphology was evaluated in the backflow (60 min after insemination) and within the uterotubal junction (UTJ) (collected ~24 h after insemination) following intrauterine sperm deposition (n = 6) and compared with the morphology of the sperm in the insemination dose. In experiment 2, the influence of the uterine fluid (UF) on sperm morphological modifications was evaluated. For this purpose, ejaculated (n = 4) and epididymal (n = 4) sperm were in vitro incubated with or without UF for 2 and 24 h. In both experiments, sperm were classified as normal, having a cytoplasmic droplet (proximal or distal) or having tail defects. The results of experiment 1 pointed to an
increase in morphologically abnormal sperm collected in the backflow (27.70%) and a reduction of the same in the UTJ (2.12%) compared with the insemination dose (17.75%) (P < 0.05). In experiment 2, incubation of ejaculated sperm with UF did not provoke any morphological modifications; however, when epididymal sperm were incubated with UF, a pronounced increase in the percentage of normal sperm was evident after 24 h compared with the initial dose (from 25.77% to 53.58%, P < 0.05), mainly due to distal cytoplasmatic droplet shedding (53.22 vs. 20.20%). In conclusion, almost all the sperm that colonize the UTJ had a normal morphology, with part of the abnormal sperm having been discarded in the backflow and part selected/modified on their way to the oviduct. UF seems to influence cytoplasmic distal droplet removal, as demonstrated previously in seminal plasma.
... The passive part of sperm transport is probably because of the flow of fluid (i.e., extender, seminal plasma, or uterine fluid) and contractile movement of the uterine horns during the estrous period [3]. Active sperm transport resulting from the intrinsic movement of sperm cells seems to be important for their migration from the proximal uterus to the UTJ and the oviduct [4,5], although uterine contractions may also be involved [3]. Several studies have indicated that to reach the oviductal environment, spermatozoa have to be intact and endowed with appropriate motility [6][7][8][9]. ...
... As a consequence, only very few spermatozoa reach the SR in the oviduct, suggesting that spermatozoa are selected in the female genital tract. Some of the sperm are eliminated by the PMNs present in the uterine lumen and some are refluxed (backflow) after insemination (reviewed by Soriano-Úbeda et al. [5]). However, it is not clear whether the reduction in the sperm population within the uterus is selective and depends on sperm characteristics or is a random process. ...
During insemination, a large number of spermatozoa are deposited in the female genital tract, but a very low percentage is able to colonize the site of fertilization. The influx of neutrophils into the uterine lumen and semen reflux (backflow) are known mechanisms that decrease the number of spermatozoa within the uterus. No report has attempted to ascertain whether the backflow is a random or selective process of the spermatozoa. In this work, sows were inseminated using two populations of spermatozoa in the same proportion: (1) unstained spermatozoa with high motility and (2) stained spermatozoa with low, medium, or high motility. Volume, number, and percentage of stained spermatozoa were evaluated in the backflow (collected at 0-15, 16-30, and 31-60 minutes after insemination). This article provides evidence that (1) the motility characteristics of the spermatozoa do not influence the percentage of sows with backflow, the volume and number of spermatozoa in the backflow; (2) the discarding of spermatozoa in the backflow is not specific during the first moments after insemination (0-15 minutes), whereas later (16-60 minutes), spermatozoa with defective motility (low and medium groups) are discarded in a higher proportion than high group in the backflow ([16-30 minutes: low, 85.13 ± 4.32%; medium, 72.99 ± 5.05%; and high, 54.91 ± 2.38%; P < 0.0001; 31-60 minutes: low, 87.16 ± 6.01%; medium, 87.02 ± 4.01%; and high, 59.35 ± 2.86%; P = 0.001]). Spermatozoa with poor motility are discarded in the backflow probably as a selective process, on the part of the female genital tract or as a result of the intrinsic low spermatozoa motility.
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