Figure 5 - uploaded by D. Daniel
Content may be subject to copyright.
BBN model 1B (type of POC as a parent node of "E. coli detected at POC" and adding node "fullness of water at storage" as one of the parent nodes of "E. coli detected at POC").
Source publication
Abstract Assessing water quality and identifying the potential source of contamination, by Sanitary inspections (SI), are essential to improve household drinking water quality. However, no study link the water quality at a point of use (POU), household level or point of collection (POC), and associated SI data in a medium resource setting using a B...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... addition of variable fullness level of water at storage, which is not part of "standard" SI variables, improved the model's performance. Therefore, we decided to use BBN model 1B (Fig. 5) and 2B (Fig. 7) for further BBN analyses, because model 1 and 2 differ in structure (Fig. ...
Context 2
... effect of HWT to improve the water quality was larger in model 2B (∆P = 13 in Table 2-right), compared to model 1B (all types of POC; ∆P = 6 in Table 2-left). If we compare the situation of intermediate nodes Chance of (re)contamination from the environment and Chance of (re)contamination from the environment in model 1B (Fig. 5) and 2B (Fig. 7), the hygiene situation was better in model 2B. The probability of being "high" in both intermediate nodes in model 2B was lower than in model 1B, e.g., 24% in model 1B compared to 13% in model 2B for the intermediate node Chance of (re)contamination from the ...
Context 3
... of variables, model 2B was used to simulate all respondents (Fig. 8). The updated probability of outcome node E. coli detected at POU being "not_detected" was 91%, compared to the 70% in the baseline situation (Fig. 7). Given the same scenario in model 1B, the updated probability of the outcome node was 92%, compared to the 72% in the baseline (Fig. 5), which suggests the same pattern as model ...
Context 4
... each node on the output node of BNN models: E. coli detected at POU (drinking water storage). The value under each category corresponding to a node as displayed in the first column is the updated probability of the output node being "Not_detected" given that all households maintain this state. The left side of the table was for the BBN model 1A (Fig. 5) and the right side was for BBN model 2B (Fig. 7). a ∆P is the difference between the lowest and highest value of the updated probability of output node: E. coli detected at POU being "Not_detected", in %. Examples of how to read the table: (a) row 4-5 BBN model 1B: if the type of POC is piped, the Probability of E. coli not-detected ...
Context 5
... and experts over the past years 35 . For example, SI results revealed that there were some hygiene challenges related to livestock ownership. The majority of the respondents (67%) kept livestock in the surroundings of the house, which could be the reason why many flies (70%) and faeces (60%) were detected in our respondents' houses (see Fig. 5 cluster (re)contamination from environment-hygiene condition). A study of Ercumen et al. 38 found that the presence of animals is related to fecal contamination, and the presence of animal faeces is associated with diarrhea and stunting 39 . This could be the reason why this area was reported as one of the locations with the highest ...
Similar publications
It is often assumed that humans experience the effect of poor water quality like multiple health and socioeconomic impacts in the same way. But these impacts are not gender-neutral due to inequalities caused by physiological composition, age marginalization, and socioeconomic conditions, among others. We analyzed the intersections between water qua...
Citations
... The quality at the point of use and collection is closely related. Water processing in households can improve the quality when the container is clean and hygienic (Daniel et al. 2020). Therefore, the environmental conditions around drinking water storage areas must be maintained its cleanliness to prevent health problems. ...
The availability of safe drinking water remains a challenge in Indonesia. Packaged water in bottles or refillable containers has been increasingly popular as an alternative to good-quality drinking water. This study aimed to identify the reasons for the selection, management, and factors that influenced bottled and refilled water use in Indonesia. A cross-sectional Household Drinking Water Quality (HDWQ) study was conducted in 34 Indonesian provinces in 2020 involving 7,236 households as analyzed samples. The data analysis also included the 2020 National Socioeconomic Survey data to obtain households' socioeconomic status. As many as 68 and 63% of households consumed good-quality bottled and refilled water, respectively. Health was the reason for 29% of households choosing good-quality bottled water, while 49% of households selected good-quality refilled water out of habit. Several factors related to the consumption of fine-quality packaged water were high social status, water physical quality, ease of access, health reason, monthly expenses to buy drinking water, and storing water in manufactured containers. Packaged water, whether bottled or refilled, does not guarantee good physical and chemical quality. Therefore, to ensure good quality, the water storage should be kept from contamination.
HIGHLIGHTS
Consumers select bottled and refilled water because of better physical quality, apparently healthier, and of easy access.;
The selection of packaged drinking water in Indonesia is related to the social status of the household.;
Packaged water is not free from pathogens; thus, proper water treatment is necessary to prevent bacterial contamination.;
... The probability relationship among parent/s and child/s can be determined either by expert judgment, calculation, direct measurements, stakeholder judgment, or the result of another model as mentioned in Daniel and Iswarani (2020). The unconditional and conditional probabilities in our models are shown in tables 2, 3, and 4. All the roots in the conceptual model are considered as unconditional properties (not having any parent). ...
Decision Support Systems for pavement and maintenance strategies have traditionally been designed as silos led to local optimum systems. Moreover, since big data usage didn't exist as result of Industry 4.0 as of today, DSSs were not initially designed adaptive to the sources of uncertainties led to rigid decisions. Motivated by the vulnerability of the road assets to the climate phenomena, this paper takes a visionary step towards introducing a Technology-Driven Adaptive Decision Support System for Integrated Pavement and Maintenance activities called TDADSS-IPM. As part of such DSS, a bottom-up risk assessment model is met via Bayesian Belief Networks (BBN) to realize the actual condition of the Danish roads due to weather condition. Such model fills the gaps in the knowledge domain and develops a platform that can be trained over time, and applied in real-time to the actual event.
... We also assessed the safety of the drinking water storage by assessing three main criteria: (1) conditions of the storage, i.e., whether there is a crack or not, the cleanliness of the inside container, or the storage cover; (2) the placement of the storage, i.e., whether the storage is placed above the ground or not, i.e., above a table or chair; and (3) the surrounding environment, i.e., presence of flies and animals around, the cleanliness of the floor, and the presence of animal feces and garbage. These factors may introduce recontamination into the treated water (Daniel et al. 2020b). ...
Household water treatment (HWT) is a solution for households that do not have access to a safe drinking water supply. A cross-sectional study was conducted in Ende District, Province of Nusa Tenggara Timur (NTT), Indonesia. A total of 425 household respondents were interviewed and observed about the HWT practice and water storage condition and 143 household drinking water samples were collected for microbial water quality analysis. Results show that even though HWT is regularly performed, not all the water they drink has been treated. The ‘level’ of psychological factors risk, attitude, norms, ability, and self-regulation (RANAS) were high, indicating that regular HWT practice goes in hand with the underlying psychological factors. Psychological factor action planning was the most influential psychological sub-factor associated related with the frequency of drinking treated water. Drinking water is mostly stored in safe storage, but placed in a less hygienic surrounding environment. Though HWT results in better water quality, water quality was not significantly associated with HWT, drinking water handling, or storage. Finally, promoting always drinking treated water and then storing it in a safe and hygienic environment are still needed in areas where HWT is commonly practiced, so people can get the maximum health impact of HWT.
HIGHLIGHTS
High level of psychological factors related to household water treatment behavior results in the regular practice of household water treatment.;
People treat their drinking water at home but often drink untreated water when being outside the home.;
Water quality is better if treated, but there is no significant association between water quality and household water treatment or variables related to water handling and storage.;
... The recontamination issue is echoed in previous drinking water studies in developing countries (Pickering et al., 2010;Rufener et al., 2010;Daniel et al., 2020aDaniel et al., , 2020b. This suggests the need to ensure the cleanliness and hygiene of the PDW, not only in the factory or depot but also in the house. ...
This study combines multiple data and analyses to gain insights into the trend of the use of packaged drinking water (PDW) in Indonesia, including the national survey to analyze the trends of PDW consumption, the Demographic Health Survey data to discover the socio-economic determinants of PDW consumption, and the systematic literature review to assess the quality and safety of PDW. The increasing rate of PDW consumption per year in Indonesia was 1.24% from 2000 to 2020 annually, and 50% of the Indonesian population is predicted to consume PDW in 2026. The increasing use of PDW in Indonesia was significantly associated with the economic growth of the country, i.e., proxied by the gross domestic product and urban population. Moreover, the use of PDW by households was significantly associated with the age of the household head, mother's educational level, father's educational level, wealth index, types of residence, regions, and types of toilet facility. The findings suggest that young people in urban areas would dominate the PDW consumer in Indonesia. Additionally, previous studies indicated that PDW in Indonesia is often contaminated. Thus, this study underlines the need to improve the quality and safety aspects of PDW to minimize its negative health effects.
HIGHLIGHTS
This study estimates that 50% of Indonesia's population would use commercial drinking water (CDW) in 2026.;
It is estimated that half of CDW in Indonesia is contaminated.;
The increasing use of CDW was associated with the economic growth of the country.;
Newly married couples in urban areas may dominate the CDW user in the future.;
Household water treatment and hygienic conditions of water dispensers are suggested.;
... These aspects require further investigation. Also, this study is limited to protecting water source but there are evidences (Daniel et al. 2020) that suggest that water quality management at the point of use (PoU) is equally important to realise the benefits of source protection. ...
... However, it is important to keep the surrounding clean, free from contaminants/other risk factors and practising proper hygiene along with managing localised pathways-related risk factors as these factors can be of high importance in presence of localised pathways (Osborne et al. 2018). This additional intervention such as safe and hygienic collection, transportation, storage, and use keep water safe at point of use (Daniel et al. 2020) and may help further in alleviating the adequate and safe water-related deprivations in rural areas, particularly amongst the most marginalised community. The four of the ten risk factors ( Fig. 1; Table 2) mentioned in the sanitary infection form for tubewell with handpump (WHO 1997) Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. ...
Microbial contamination of handpump (HP) is common in developing countries like India. The WHO recommends sanitary inspection (SI) to assess the risk of water source contamination. In SI, all risks are given equal weightage. However, different mathematical models have shown that risks associated with localised pathways have a relatively higher influence on microbial contamination. This study aims to assess the efficacy of eliminating four risks associated with localised pathways and have shown a higher positive association with microbial contamination of HP than others in bivariate frequency analysis and four binary logistic regressions applied on 324 HPs randomly selected from nine districts of Uttar Pradesh, India. Analysis showed the four risks: (i) HP loose at base: (ii) apron cracked: (iii) apron < 1 m an: (iv) drainage broken have a higher positive association than others. In this study, the above four risks were eliminated from 154 HPs (safe 48 and unsafe 106) through standard civil structures keeping other risks untouched. Post-intervention thermotolerant coliforms (TTC) tests were carried out and unsafe HPs were reduced from 106 to 3. Therefore, managing the four risks associated with localised pathways is highly effective in preventing microbial contamination of HP water.
... Second, considering the BBN model layer, one can expect that the influence of the nodes in the outer layer, i.e. SEC, is smaller than that of the nodes in the intermediate layer, i.e. psychological factors, because the psychological factors directly influence the output node, i.e. irrigation and micro-irrigation (Daniel et al. 2020a). Finally, it is also possible that the selected SECs cannot fully explain the psychological factors, as mentioned previously, which then affects SECs' ability to explain the behaviour via the psychological factors. ...
Psychological frameworks are rarely used to understand irrigation adoption behaviour in developing countries. A Bayesian belief network (BBN) model was developed that integrated socio-economic characteristics and psychological factors to understand farmer behaviours with respect to irrigation practices in four districts of Maharashtra, India. Strong norms, risk perceptions of water scarcity, and attitude play roles in the adoption of irrigation technology and practices. Critically, it was found that no one factor can explain adoption behaviour; rather, an ensemble of factors is needed to understand farmer behaviour. A farmer who is highly educated, middle-aged, and moderately wealthy with a significant level of family help and an open well as their main water source, while receiving low promotional information related to water scarcity and irrigation adoption, is most likely to adopt irrigation technology. The application of the BBN in this study enables stakeholders and policymakers to better understand the linkages between different factors and behaviour. © 2022 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.
... In a study [12], authors deployed a fuzzy Quality function for managing SCOR performance indicators. On the other hand, BBN has been used in research [13,14] for supply chain risk management, and it is a different context than when we implement BBN. BBN could be found in other fields, like a sanitary inspection for drinking water [15], to predict no show patients [16] and quality forecasting [17]. ...
... Since pathogens can reach humans by various routes, a holistic approach or multibarrier prevention to minimize the risk of pathogens reaching a human is suggested [5,6]. Multi-barrier prevention has been applied in the context of the drinking water supply, i.e., the water safety plan [7]. ...
... There are some studies on household hygiene conditions that can inspire the questions used to measure household hygiene conditions, e.g., by [12,13]. Questions or variables from the SI form for household drinking water can also be used since they measure hygiene practices related to drinking water; see, for example, the studies of [5,11,14]. One can then use the adapted SI forms to inform which hygiene aspects should be tackled, which can then improve the general household hygiene conditions. ...
... One can then use the adapted SI forms to inform which hygiene aspects should be tackled, which can then improve the general household hygiene conditions. Some hygiene-related studies have been conducted in Indonesia, for example, on handwashing practices [15][16][17] and general household hygiene conditions [5,13]. There are is also evidence that household hygiene is associated with children's malnutrition in Indonesia [18,19]. ...
Household hygiene is critical to prevent pathogen transmission at the household level. Assessing household hygiene conditions and their determinants are needed to improve hygiene conditions, especially in rural and less developed areas where the housing conditions are relatively worse than they are in urban areas. This study used data from 278 household interviews and observations in rural areas in the district of East Sumba, province East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia. The data were analyzed using statistical methods. In general, the household hygiene conditions in the study need to be improved. The main potential sources of pathogen transmission were from the surrounding environment, i.e., non-permanent floor and garbage, and personal hygiene, i.e., handwashing facilities with water and soap were only observed in the homes of four out of ten respondents. The presence of livestock roaming freely in the house’s yard was another source of contamination. Easy access to water and wealth significantly influenced the hygiene conditions. Implementing low-cost interventions, i.e., cleaning the house of garbage and animal feces and cleaning nails, should be the priority in immediate intervention, while providing easier access to water supply, especially during the dry season, could be a long-term intervention. This paper also argues that analyzing household hygiene conditions or practices should be complemented by analyzing contextual determinants of the hygiene conditions or practices, so that we can develop more precise intervention by considering the local or household context.
... Second, we only assessed the HWT practice in this study and not the safe storage practice. Safe storage is needed to prevent recontamination of treated water (Mintz et al., 1995), and, indeed, in another study in the same area, it was found that there is a "moderate" chance of recontamination due to inappropriate water storage (Daniel et al., 2020a). This implies that even though households were categorized as regularly practicing HWT in this study, the drinking water quality may not be safe to drink. ...
Household water treatment (HWT) is one of the possible technologies to improve the quality of potable water in low-middle-income countries. However, many households still drink untreated water that leads to negative health consequences, highlighting the need for a behavioral study. This study explores the role of eight socioeconomic characteristics (SECs) and five psychological factors on the practices of HWT, using a combination of statistical analyses and Bayesian Belief Network (BBN) modeling. The findings were based on 377 household interviews in East Sumba, Indonesia, an area where indigenous belief is still common. Self-reported answers and observed practices of HWT were combined, and 51% of the respondents were categorized as regular users of HWT. Furthermore, favorable socioeconomic conditions, e.g., wealthier or more educated parents, facilitated psychological factors that led to regular use of HWT. This suggests the importance of reducing SEC inequalities to improve the HWT adoption. Mother's education was the most influential SEC (P = 8), and people who followed indigenous beliefs tend not to use HWT on a regular basis. Moreover, easy access to water positively influenced the household's ability to operate the HWT technology. Attitude toward the HWT practice, especially the perception of treated water's taste (β = 0.277), was the most significant psychological factor, influencing HWT adoption. An interpretation of complex interlinkages between socioeconomic conditions and psychological factors that drive the practice of HWT was therefore offered, alongside recommendations for conservative interventions to change the household's behavior in a culturally unique area with difficult access to water.
... Finally, we noted that some information relevant to drinking water safety was not included in the revised household practices form, such as: the duration of water storage; the volume of water inside the final storage container; whether the respondents used the same container for collection, intermediate storage, and final storage; and the last time the final storage container was cleaned with soap [31,[39][40][41][42][43]. This information may be relevant, especially if the SI aims to suggest effective control measures to improve drinking water quality. ...
Risk assessment for drinking water systems combines sanitary inspections (SI) and water quality testing and is critical for effectively managing the safety of these systems. SI forms consist of question sets relating to the presence of potential sources and pathways of contamination specific to different types of water points, piped distribution systems, and household collection and storage practices. As part of the revision to the Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality (GDWQ), the World Health Organization (WHO) is updating the suite of SI forms to reflect and include the most recent technical and scientific information available. This paper reports the results from a field pilot of a selection of published and revised SI forms and water quality testing in the municipality of Bushenyi-Ishaka, Uganda. We collected data from 45 springs, 61 taps from piped distribution systems, and 129 household storage containers filled with water from those springs and taps. The median total risk scores, according to the revised forms, for spring, tap, and household practices were 36, 53, and 33%, respectively, with higher percentages indicating greater risk. The median Escherichia coli concentrations of spring, tap, and household storage systems were 17, <1, and 7 CFU/100 mL, respectively. We found that increased questioning in the revised SI forms do not necessarily translate to a higher total risk. There is potential for misinterpretation of terminology in the revised SI forms and occasional redundancy of concepts. For the revised SI form for springs, we suggest specific text changes to reduce potential bias. We recommend that users of SI forms receive training in their use and be familiar with their locale. Furthermore, the revised SI forms may need to be adapted in accordance with the local context.
