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Audiogram showing the average human threshold for pure tones obtained in a sound field used to test other mammals. Low values on the y axis (dB) indicate greater hearing sensitivity. For comparative purposes, hearing range is usually specified as the range of frequencies audible at a level of 60-dB SPL; the range of frequencies audible at a level of 10 dB SPL specifies the frequencies to which an animal is very sensitive. Adapted with permission from reference 16.
Source publication
Any attempt to assess the effects of sounds on animals must consider species differences in hearing abilities. Although the hearing ranges of most species overlap to a large degree, considerable variation occurs in high- and low-frequency hearing as well as in absolute sensitivity. As a result, a sound that is easily audible to one species may be l...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... example of an audiogram for humans is shown in Figure 1, with the intensity of a tone at threshold plotted against frequen- cies spanning the range of hearing. Note that intensity is plotted in decibels (dB) using a scale in which 0 dB is equal to a sound pressure level (SPL) of 20 μN/m 2 , which is the average human threshold at a frequency of 1 kHz; thus, as in the Fahrenheit and Celsius temperature scales, SPL can have negative values. ...
Context 2
... shape of the human audiogram (Figure 1) is characteristic of normal audiograms in other species. Beginning at the low frequencies, the audiogram shows a gradual improvement in sensitivity as frequency is increased until a point of best hear- ing is reached, which for humans is at about 2 to 4 kHz; above this point there is a gradual decrease in sensitivity that becomes more rapid as the upper limit of hearing is approached. ...
Context 3
... this measure, we have adopted the range of frequencies audible at a level of 10 dB, a level that is approximately 1 standard deviation above the median best sensitivity for mammals (excluding aquatic and subterranean species, whose hearing differs from that of other mammals). The 10-dB hearing range of humans is from 250 Hz to 8.1 kHz (Figure 1). Low values on the y axis (dB) indicate greater hearing sensitivity. ...
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Citations
... In contrast, sound as an environmental stimulus has received less research attention and receives scant attention in commercial applications. Published results indicate that audible sound (20 Hz-20 kHz) [4] processes in microbial cultures. For example, audible sound has been reported to affect gramnegative bacteria, by increasing cell viability, colony formation and biomass production [5][6][7][8][9], and increase growth, antibiotic susceptibility, and endospore germination [10]. ...
Sound is a physical stimulus that has the potential to affect various growth parameters of microorganisms. However, the effects of audible sound on microbes reported in the literature are inconsistent. Most published studies involve transmitting sound from external speakers through air toward liquid cultures of the microorganisms. However, the density differential between air and liquid culture could greatly alter the sound characteristics to which the microorganisms are exposed. In this study we apply white noise sound in a highly controlled experimental system that we previously established for transmitting sound underwater directly into liquid cultures to examine the effects of two key sound parameters, frequency and intensity, on the fermentation performance of a commercial Saccharomyces cerevisiae ale yeast growing in a maltose minimal medium. We performed these experiments in an anechoic chamber to minimise extraneous sound, and find little consistent effect of either sound frequency or intensity on the growth rate, maltose consumption, or ethanol production of this yeast strain. These results, while in contrast to those reported in most published studies, are consistent with our previous study showing that direct underwater exposure to white noise sound has little impact on S. cerevisiae volatile production and sugar utilization in beer medium. Thus, our results suggest the possibility that reported microorganism responses to sound may be an artefact associated with applying sound to cultures externally via transmission through air.
... In looking at the neuroanatomy of these structures it is important to keep in mind the differences in audition among species. Species differ in the frequency range detected, in head size, and in the size, shape and degree of mobility of the pinna (e.g., Heffner, 1997;Heffner and Heffner, 2007). The "classical" description of the DC, based on studies of the cat, is that is a laminar structure with a layer of pyramidal cells oriented perpendicular to the brainstem surface. ...
Introduction:
It is commonly thought that while the organization of the cerebral cortex changes dramatically over evolution, the organization of the brainstem is conserved across species. It is further assumed that, as in other species, brainstem organization is similar from one human to the next. We will review our data on four human brainstem nuclei that suggest that both ideas may need modification.
Methods:
We have studied the neuroanatomical and neurochemical organization of the nucleus paramedianus dorsalis (PMD), the principal nucleus of the inferior olive (IOpr), the arcuate nucleus of the medulla (Arc) and the dorsal cochlear nucleus (DC). We compared these human brainstem nuclei to nuclei in other mammals including chimpanzees, monkeys, cats and rodents. We studied human cases from the Witelson Normal Brain collection using Nissl and immunostained sections, and examined archival Nissl and immunostained sections from other species.
Results:
We found significant individual variability in the size and shape of brainstem structures among humans. There is left-right asymmetry in the size and appearance of nuclei, dramatically so in the IOpr and Arc. In humans there are nuclei, e.g., the PMD and the Arc, not seen in several other species. In addition, there are brainstem structures that are conserved across species but show major expansion in humans, e.g., the IOpr. Finally, there are nuclei, e.g. the DC, that show major differences in structure among species.
Discussion:
Overall, the results suggest several principles of human brainstem organization that distinguish humans from other species. Studying the functional correlates of, and the genetic contributions to, these brainstem characteristics are important future research directions.
... Although the number of cochlear turns in rabbit is similar to that of human, the hearing of rabbits is much sharper than that of humans where the frequency of rabbit hearing ranges from 360 to 42,000 Hz (Heffner & Masterton, 1980;Martin et al., 1980 ), whereas that of humans ranges from 20 to 20,000 Hz (Yost & Killion, 1997). The main reason for this variation may be due to the large mobile pinnae of the rabbit which can amplify or attenuate sound by directing their pinnae towards or away from the source of the sound as discussed by Heffner and Heffner (2007). ...
... Although the number of cochlear turns in rabbit is similar to that of human, the hearing of rabbits is much sharper than that of humans where the frequency of rabbit hearing ranges from 360 to 42,000 Hz (Heffner & Masterton, 1980;Martin et al., 1980 ), whereas that of humans ranges from 20 to 20,000 Hz (Yost & Killion, 1997). The main reason for this variation may be due to the large mobile pinnae of the rabbit which can amplify or attenuate sound by directing their pinnae towards or away from the source of the sound as discussed by Heffner and Heffner (2007). ...
Anatomically, the inner ear is a highly complex organ of intricate design, composed of a bony labyrinth that encases the same‐shaped membranous labyrinth. It is difficult to study the three‐dimensional anatomy of the inner ear because the relevant structures are very small and embedded within the petrous temporal bone, one of the densest bones in the body. The current study aimed to provide a detailed anatomic reference for the normal anatomy of the rabbit's inner ear. As a study model, ten healthy adults New Zealand White rabbit heads were used. Six heads were used for macroscopic evaluation of the bony and membranous labyrinths. The remaining four heads were evaluated radiographically, where 3D images were generated of the bony and membranous labyrinths using data sets from computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), respectively. The anatomical structures were identified and labelled according to NominaAnatomicaVeterinaria (NAV). Our study revealed that CT and MRI are the optimal cross‐sectional imaging modalities for investigating such tiny and often inaccessible inner ear structures. As high‐quality scanners are not readily available to veterinarians, the CT and MRI images generated by this research were of lower quality; therefore, high‐quality dissections were used to identify/support structures seen in these images. In conclusion, this study provides one of the first investigations that uses multislice CT scans and MRI to study the rabbit's inner ear and its correlation with the corresponding anatomical images. Both anatomical, CT and MRI images will serve as a reference for interpreting pathologies relative to the rabbit's inner ear.
... • Mice have a substantially narrower hearing range than humans (Heffner and Heffner 2007). ...
... In guinea pig, the most appropriate frequency range of hearing was between 4 and 20 kHz; thus, the cDPOAE-SNR recorded at appropriate frequency range (above 4 kHz) was larger than that recorded at the less appropriate frequency range (e.g., 0.5 kHz). 48 The response pattern of cDPOAE provided an overview of OHCs function across the tested frequencies. The comparison of response patterns before and after noise exposures could be very useful for the estimation of hearing loss. ...
Background:
The measurement of low-frequency cubic distortion product otoacoustic emission, for example, 0.5-kHz cubic distortion product otoacoustic emission, is often severely affected by background noise, and currently 0.5-kHz cubic distortion product otoacoustic emission is not commonly applicable in clinical setting.
Methods:
The fundamental part of current study was the optimization of recording technology to reduce noise interference with the measurement of 0.5-kHz cubic distortion product otoacoustic emission and to establish the response patterns of cubic distortion product otoacoustic emission across speech frequencies from 0.5 to 8kHz in the presence of normal hearing and noise-induced hearing loss.
Results:
After a series of optimization, a clinically applicable technology of measuring 0.5-kHz cubic distortion product otoacoustic emission was successfully completed via animal model. Cubic distortion product otoacoustic emission was recorded in 6 guinea pigs across speech frequencies from 0.5 to 8kHz before and after exposure to white bandnoise between 0.5 and 2 kHz. After noise exposure, significant reduction in the signal-to-noise ratio of cubic distortion product otoacoustic emission was found at 0.5 and 2 kHz, indicating our recording technology was sensitive and accurate. Other interesting finding was the reduction in cubic distortion product otoacoustic emiss ion-s ignal -to-n oise ratio at 4 and 6 kHz although the reduction was not statistically significant probably because of short exposure time. The result implied that the damaging effect induced by low-frequency noise exposure might spread upward to high-frequency region.
Conclusions:
Our recording technology was stable and reliable and had the great potentiality to be used in clinical setting.
... The assessment of current noise conditions, particularly some Lmax events within each of the animal rooms was noted to be louder than some of the recommendations made in the literature reviewed, yet there does not appear to be any significant negative impact on the animals within. This is not entirely unexpected as animals appear to have a large degree of long-term resilience and adaptability when it comes to noise and vibration, highlighted in Heffner & Heffner [1] which notes the following: ...
Distinct from usual laboratory guidelines that look at long term noise limits, this paper assesses short-term noise and vibration targets and their effects on laboratory mice, rats, and rabbits through a review of existing literature. Maximum noise limits of 70-85 dBA and 70-85 dBR Lmax and maximum vibration limit of 1.0 mm/s were identified and investigated for suitability as alerts for construction works within specific limits. Other noise aspects likely to affect the animals were also considered, including the effects of startle and mitigation methods to combat these such as noise masking. 80-85 dBA/dBR was found to be not overly onerous for carefully planned minor construction works associated with angle grinders, drills, hammer drills, and core-drilling machines in adjacent spaces for the fitting of new cage washers and autoclaves. Noise and vibration levels were measured and predicted to determine whether re-radiated structure-borne noise was a likely problem given the difficulty of mitigating this. These targets were applied to one such lab undergoing construction with feedback from the lab technicians, noting any effects that were observed with the animals.
... The hearing range of mice is between 2 kHz and 70 kHz (Heffner & Heffner, 2007). To find different frequencies with equal sound pressure levels (SPL) in the corner, a measuring microphone (miniDSP Umik-1 calibrated USB microphone) and the software Room EQ Wizard (https://www.roomeqwizard.com) were used. ...
The cognitive bias test is used to measure the emotional state of animals with regard to future expectations. Thus, the test offers a unique possibility to assess animal welfare with regard to housing and testing conditions of laboratory animals. So far, however, the performance of such a test is time consuming and requires the presence of an experimenter. Therefore, we developed an automated and home-cage based cognitive bias test based on the IntelliCage system. We present several developmental steps to improve the experimental design leading to a successful measurement of cognitive bias in group-housed female C57BL/6J mice. The automated and home-cage based test design allows to obtain individual data from group-housed mice, to test the mice in their familiar environment, and during their active phase. By connecting the test-cage to the home-cage via a gating system, the mice participated in the test on a self-chosen schedule, indicating high motivation to actively participate in the experiment. We propose that this should have a positive effect on the animals themselves as well as on the data. Unexpectedly, the mice showed an optimistic cognitive bias after enrichment was removed and additional restraining. An optimistic expectation of the future as a consequence of worsening environmental conditions, however, can also be interpreted as an active coping strategy in which a potential profit is sought to be maximized through a higher willingness to take risks.
... [32] compared the spectral properties of WTN and traffic noise, and suggested that a combination of highway noise and WTN might create a greater, more complex disturbance, rather than one masking the other. Specifically, WTN alters the natural acoustic environment by inducing airborne loud broadband sound [33] which is within the hearing range of many animals [34], including most bird species [35]. A few other studies have also looked at the effects of WTN on other wildlife with mixed results. ...
... Outdoor WTN levels upwards of around 40 Hz normally exceed the hearing thresholds of indoor areas, although this might vary depending on noise insulation standards [48]. Sound frequency is also important when addressing WTN effects on wildlife, since WTN is usually characterized by a broad band range, with changes in the WTN spectrum observed in the frequency range of 200-5000 Hz [49], which overlaps with the hearing range of many wildlife species [34], particularly birds [35]. Wind turbines also emit a low frequency noise that is out of most people's hearing range, including very low frequency noise (<20 Hz) that some refer to as "infrasound" or "infrasound and low frequency noise" (IFLN). ...
The quest for cleaner energy has caused governments to expand renewable energy infrastructure, including wind turbine farms. However, wind turbines (WTs) can also pose a risk to certain wildlife species, with wildlife-related research predominantly focusing on the potential harm caused to birds and bats from impact injuries. New evidence suggests that WT noise (WTN) impacts on wildlife can also be detrimental to wildlife, but rarely receive attention from planners. Potential types of WTN impact, including damage to wildlife physical wellbeing, vital survival mechanisms, social and reproductive processes, and habitat continuity. This article reviews the current literature on WTN effects on wildlife, and analyzes the planning guidelines relating to WTN and wildlife in three selected locales where WT infrastructure is being expanded: California, Germany, and Israel. Findings indicate that none of them have clear zoning limitations or obligatory environmental impact assessment (EIA) guidelines that require addressing the WTN effects on wildlife. However, some steps taken by planning authorities suggest potential for improvement. These include language in California planning recommendations addressing the potential effects of WTN on wildlife; a German survey of local bird species' sensitivity to noise (including a WTN section); and increasing non-obligatory recommendations that encourage distancing WTs from protected areas. The study concludes that WTN effects on wildlife could be mitigated by gathering additional scientific data on WTN impacts, mapping species presence and auditory sensitivity to provide information for planners and ad-visors, and mandating the use of better science-informed practices and technologies for WTN reduction, such as long-term monitoring, zoning, and micro-siting.
... After mice learnt how to lick left and right water ports, they were trained to discriminate a range of tone frequencies (between 7 and 28 kHz, or between 5 and 20 kHz, distributed in logarithmic scale of octaves) as higher or lower than the defined category boundary, which is the mid line of the logarithmically spaced frequency range, i.e., 14 kHz for the 7-28 kHz range, and 10 kHz for the 5-20 kHz. The frequency ranges were chosen according to the typical hearing range of laboratory mouse (54). ...
The striatum comprises distinct types of neurons giving rise to the direct and indirect basal ganglia pathways and local circuits. A large amount of work has been focusing on cell-type specific striatal circuits in the context of movement control, proposing several models on their functional roles. But it remains to be elucidated how the cell-type specific striatal circuits contribute to decision-making behavior and whether the existing models apply. Here, we investigate the causal roles of the cell-type specific circuits in the posterior tail of the dorsal striatum (TS) of mice in an auditory-guided decision-making behavior. Transient unilateral activation of the direct- or indirect-pathway striatal spiny projection neurons (dSPNs or iSPNs) both biased decisions in opposite directions. These effects, however, were not due to a direct influence on movement, but was specific to the decision period preceding action execution. Optogenetic inactivation of dSPNs and iSPNs revealed their opposing causal contributions to decisions. At the local circuit level, simutaneous optical recording and manipulation of dSPNs and iSPNs revealed their antagnizing interactions. Inactivation of PV interneurons, a common inhibitory input to both dSPNs and iSPNs, facilitated contraversive choices, supporting a causal contribution of coordinated striatal circuits. Using a neural circuit model, we further demonstrated the computational implemenation of the causal circuit mechanism. Our results indicate that while the causal roles of the cell-type specific striatal circuits in decision-making largely agree with classic models in movement control, they show decision task-related specificity involving local circuit coordination.
