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(Attorre & Van Damme, 2020). Socotra Island is part of a small yet significant Yemeni archipelago, situated in the western Indian Ocean just off the Horn of Africa. It is the largest island of Arabia. Since 2008, the Socotra Archipelago has been listed as one of Yemen’s UNESCO World Heritage Sites, in particular for its rich biodiversity and high number of endemic species. Image from Google Earth, modified by Kay Van Damme
Source publication
The topical collection ‘Twenty years of biodiversity research and nature conservation in the Socotra Archipelago’, in short ‘Socotra biodiversity research and nature conservation’ was conceived at the 18th Friends of Socotra annual meeting and Socotra conference which took place at the Orto Botanico di Palermo, Palermo, Italy, 26–29 September, 2019...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... Socotra Archipelago is situated in the western Indian Ocean near the Horn of Africa and belongs to Yemen. It consists of a few islands of which Socotra is the largest (Fig. 1), the latter covering a land area of about 3600 km 2 . Ever since the first scientific expeditions to Socotra towards the end of the nineteenth century, biologists have been fascinated by this place with its strange umbrella-and bottle-shaped trees. Most likely, Charles Darwin would have loved visiting the 'Galápagos of the Indian ...
Context 2
... Socotra Archipelago is situated in the western Indian Ocean near the Horn of Africa and belongs to Yemen. It consists of a few islands of which Socotra is the largest (Fig. 1), the latter covering a land area of about 3600 km 2 . Ever since the first scientific expeditions to Socotra towards the end of the nineteenth century, biologists have been fascinated by this place with its strange umbrella-and bottle-shaped trees. Most likely, Charles Darwin would have loved visiting the 'Galápagos of the Indian ...
Context 3
... Socotra Archipelago is situated in the western Indian Ocean near the Horn of Africa and belongs to Yemen. It consists of a few islands of which Socotra is the largest (Fig. 1), the latter covering a land area of about 3600 km 2 . Ever since the first scientific expeditions to Socotra towards the end of the nineteenth century, biologists have been fascinated by this place with its strange umbrella-and bottle-shaped trees. Most likely, Charles Darwin would have loved visiting the 'Galápagos of the Indian ...
Similar publications
The nocturnal insect diversity was very high, with more than 100 insect species in a square metre in all light-trapping sites. The mean Shannon Index was 4.60 while Simpson Index was 176.72. It is interesting to note that Sg. Kangkawat insect richness appears to be the second highest after Crocker Range, when compared with 25 other forest reserves...
Citations
... Socotra Island, the largest in the archipelago, is home to several iconic endemic tree species, including frankincense (Boswellia spp.), myrrh (Commiphora spp.), and the Socotran dragon's blood tree (Dracaena cinnabari Balf.f.). These trees hold not only ecological significance but also cultural importance (Miller and Morris 2004;Attorre and Van Damme 2020). However, despite their value, these endemic species are currently facing severe threats, with the primary concern being a lack of natural regeneration associated with overgrazing Hamdiah et al. 2024). ...
Question
Plant–plant facilitation is a critical ecological mechanism in arid environments, influencing biodiversity and ecosystem resilience globally. Shrubs often serve as nurse species, enhancing tree regeneration and sheltering plant communities, particularly in overgrazed or degraded habitats. In this study, we examine the role of shrubs as nurse species in the Socotra Archipelago (Yemen), a biodiversity hotspot in which several endemic tree species, including the iconic frankincense ( Boswellia spp.), myrrh ( Commiphora spp.), and Socotran dragon's blood ( Dracaena cinnabari ) trees, are threatened. This is largely due to a lack of natural regeneration caused by the combined effects of overgrazing by goats, sheep, and climatic events such as extreme droughts and cyclones. To aid conservation of threatened trees in arid regions, nature‐based solutions are urgently needed to help tree regeneration. Effective nurse plants have this potential, particularly in arid environments. We therefore examined the role of thorny, poisonous, and/or unpalatable shrubs as nurse plants in sheltering threatened plant communities, with a focus on woody species in an arid insular context.
Study Area
The Socotra Archipelago (Yemen) situated in the western Indian Ocean, east of the Horn of Africa. It is a biodiversity sanctuary and a UNESCO Natural World Heritage Site.
Methods
Vegetation surveys were conducted in 144 paired plots under six common shrub species and adjacent open areas. Community data, environmental variables, and functional traits were analysed using RLQ and fourth‐corner analyses, while Linear Mixed Models (LMMs) evaluated the effects of environmental variables and nurse species on key functional traits based on Community Weighted Means (CWMs). Facilitation effects were quantified using the Relative Interaction Index (RII).
Results
Our analysis revealed significant variations in species composition and functional traits between under‐canopy and open‐area plots. Certain shrubs, such as Cebatha balfourii , facilitated significantly higher species richness under its canopy compared to open areas. Elevation and grazing pressure influenced these interactions, with notable effects on functional traits like the occurrence of legumes and tree growth forms. Buxus hildebrandtii was less effective in supporting species richness, while C. balfourii, Lycium sokotranum , and two Cissus species exhibited significant positive facilitation. The LMMs confirmed the importance of environmental variables and nurse shrub characteristics in shaping plant community dynamics.
Conclusions
The results highlight differences in the facilitative potential of the studied species, with some showing a stronger ability to act as nurse shelters through microhabitat amelioration and protection from herbivory. The presence of tree species under shrubs is confirmed, and the role of these nurse species in supporting diverse plant communities provides critical insights for conservation strategies, supporting biodiversity resilience and sustainable management in degraded landscapes like Socotra Island and other arid environments. Future efforts should focus on leveraging nurse shrubs to mitigate environmental pressures and enhance ecological restoration, in particular to help conserve range‐restricted and threatened plant species.
... The Western Indian Ocean Islands, delimited at the north by Socotra and at the south by Madagascar, have been identified as a global biodiversity hotspot (Myers et al. 2000;Attorre and Van Damme 2020;Agnarsson et al. 2015). Although extremely variable in size, and geological origin and history, these islands harbour a terrestrial fauna notable for striking patterns of radiation and endemicity (Legros et al. 2020;Bergsten and Biström 2022;Sherlock et al. 2024). ...
Centipedes collected during Royal Society surveys of the arthropod fauna of the Aldabra Atoll in 1968–1975 are identified, described, and illustrated to provide the first checklist to the Aldabran centipede fauna, comprising 12 species. These newly include the lithobiomorph Lamyctes tristani (Pocock, 1893), the scolopendromorphs Scolopendra morsitansLinnaeus 1758, Cryptops cf. japonicus Takakuwa, 1934, Cryptops mauritianus Verhoeff, 1939, and Cryptops nigropictus Takakuwa, 1936, and the geophilomorphs Ityphilus cf. taeniaformis (Lawrence, 1960), Mecistocephalus angusticeps (Ribaut, 1914), Mecistocephalus lohmanderi Verhoeff, 1939, Orphnaeus dekanius Verhoeff, 1938, Ribautia cf. paucipes Attems, 1952, and Tuoba sydneyensis (Pocock, 1891). The geophilomorph genera Hovanyx Lawrence, 1960, syn. nov., and Mixophilus Silvestri, 1929, syn. nov., are revised in light of the examined material and hereby designated junior subjective synonyms of Tuoba Chamberlin, 1920 with the species Geophilus lemuricus Verhoeff, 1939, syn. nov., and Hovanyx waterloti Lawrence, 1960, syn. nov., designated as junior subjective synonyms of T. sydneyensis. The oryid genus Nycternyssa Crabill, 1959, syn. nov., is revised and designated a junior subjective synonym of Orphnaeus Meinert, 1870. New data on intraspecific morphological variation are presented for C. nigropictus, with the validity of Cryptops daszaki Lewis, 2002 being questioned following examination of its type material. The affinities and possible origins of the Aldabran centipede fauna are found to be mainly East African, with several species occurring across other islands in the Western Indian Ocean.
... Therefore, it is undoubtedly a global hotspot for biodiversity. It offers beautiful wildlife scenery characterized by colorful coral reefs, coastal fish, and amazing crustaceans [16,17]. ...
... The proposed management plan for Socotra recommends that community-based tourism, such as small-scale and community-driven development, should be a thrust in formulating tourism development [12]. The plan capitalizes on including the local communities in tourism activities, ensuring that tourism profits are equitably available to all the stakeholders and are favorable for the environment [15,17]. ...
Socotra Island, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, faces unique challenges in balancing tourism development with conservation efforts. This research focuses on the conservation of Socotra through tourism development. It explores the concept of ecotourism and its significance in promoting sustainable practices. This paper addresses ecotourism development's social, economic, and environmental impacts and highlights its benefits for local communities. This study analyzes the status of tourism in Socotra and evaluates its effectiveness, considering the perspectives of the local community, tour guides, tourism companies, and tourists. Finally, this research highlights the potential for sustainable tourism development on Socotra Island. It addresses key challenges, including effective tourism management, coordination, waste disposal, and community involvement. This research contributes to the growing body of knowledge on sustainable tourism development in ecologically sensitive regions. By advocating for a collaborative approach, this research offers valuable insights for policymakers, conservation practitioners, and tourism stakeholders working in Socotra and similar destinations.
... Several challenges to Socotra's biodiversity affect entire habitats including the shrublands, woodlands and forests, the latter of which are relatively limited in distribution . The rich terrestrial flora of Socotra is strongly impacted by overgrazing which has started centuries ago and which has partly shaped the plant communities by counter-acting regeneration of palatable species, leading to a general decline of habitat-and soil quality (Van Damme and Banfield, 2011;Attorre and Van Damme, 2020;Maděra and Van Damme, 2022). Affected by overgrazing, environmental factors such as soil and climatic factors play major roles in shaping the current distribution of trees in Socotra . ...
The Socotra Archipelago (Yemen) is an interesting biodiversity hotspot, with a significant proportion of endemic species that have evolved to survive in an arid subtropical environment, inscribed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. The terrestrial ecosystems of Socotra face several threats, including climate change, overgrazing and soil degradation. Socotra Island has four endemic species of the genus Commiphora (Burseraceae). Little is known about their local distribution and ecology, yet these trees could be useful indicator species. Our study focuses on the distribution and niche characterisation of the four endemic Commiphora species of Socotra and how climate change may affect them. The aim is to improve insights into their habitats and to provide an essential basis for future local management plans and ecological restoration. We compared the current distribution with the forecasted potential distribution under a CMIP6 (Coupled Model Intercomparison Project) climate scenario, allowing us to define target conservation areas and assess potential local extinction risks. To achieve this, we collected distribution data in the field throughout Socotra Island, covering the current distribution ranges of the four species. To assess the potential distribution of these species, we applied three models (GAM, MaxEnt, RandomForest) using bioclimatic, topographic and soil variables. Forecasts under a climate change scenario were made using bioclimatic variables from the CMCC-CESM2 climate model for two different socioeconomic pathways. The distribution of three endemic Socotran Commiphora is mainly correlated to clay content in the soil and winter precipitation, while C. socotrana is affected by seasonal precipitation and temperature. Under different potential future climate scenarios, the distribution of C. ornifolia is predicted to remain stable or increase, while C. parvifolia distribution could increase, yet C. planifrons and C. socotrana are predicted to undergo a strong reduction of suitable areas and an upward shift in the mountains. Our results highlight that it is essential to conserve the unique terrestrial ecosystems in Socotra and to preserve these endemic trees which have a wide range of ecosystem services. Updates on the predicted extinction risk assessment are fundamental to understand conservation priorities and strategize future actions to ensure the persistence of Socotran myrrh trees and other endangered endemic tree taxa on the island.
... Taking into account the ongoing decline of the terrestrial ecosystems on Socotra for various reasons, ecological restoration and reforestation activities of this endemic tree species are urgently needed [12,30,31]. To identify the most suitable areas for such interventions, a model, based on the Dragon tree as a case study and applicable to other species, integrating suitability and accessibility analyses is proposed in this study. ...
... The unique umbrella-shape of the crown constitutes a fundamental natural system that traps humidity brought by the ocean breeze and helps recharge the shallow aquifers of the island [18]. Therefore, the disappearance of these dragon's blood trees would have a significant impact on the freshwater resources [18], biodiversity [58], and touristic attractiveness of Socotra [30], in addition to the potential loss of key human-nature linkages that the island is known for. ...
We examine the distribution of Dracaena cinnabari, the Socotran Dragon’s Blood Tree, an endangered species endemic to the island of Socotra (Yemen)—and we propose an accessibility approach to its conservation, taking the proximity of local communities and land users into account. Using the present occurrence of D. cinnabari, we applied a machine learning algorithm (random forest classifier) to estimate the potential distribution of the species across the island (overall validation accuracy of 0.91) based on available climatic and physiographic parameters. In parallel, we used an accessibility methodology to generate a map of the energy cost of accessing potential areas from the villages. This community-focused accessibility map, combined with the potential distribution map of Dracaena cinnabari, could contribute to decision-making processes related to long-term ecological restoration and reforestation activities. With our case study, we wish to emphasize that user-focused efforts and the implementation of sustainable land practices should play key roles in conserving endangered tree species.
... Although the Socotra Archipelago has preserved a satisfactory conservation status since its inscription on the World Heritage List in 2008, it started facing various challenges, mainly related to development activities supporting the well-being of the population (UNESCO-WHC, Socotra Archipelago, 2008;Van Damme & Banfield, 2011;Attorre and Van Damme, 2020). Political instability and climate change have also severely weakened the resilience of the environment and the local communities to such hazards (UNESCO-WHC, 2020;UNESCO-WHC, 2020;Abedalhaleem, 2019). ...
... The site has faced various challenges, mainly connected to poorly planned and even harmful development activities aiming to support the well-being of the island's residents. These activities included road and other infrastructure construction, introduction of potentially invasive species entering through the island's ports, fishing and marine resource harvesting, solid waste disposal and the widespread livestock grazing which currently forms a major ecological threat(UNESCO-WHC, 2008;Van Damme & Banfield, 2011;Attorre & Van Damme, 2020).Political instability and climate change further aggravated the impacts of unsustainable development activities, which severely undermined the resilience of the environment and communities.Figure 9shows the key challenges affecting Socotra (UNESCO-WHC, 2020; IUCN, 2020; Abedalhaleem H. , 2019) (IUCN, 2020). Since 1972, Socotra has received at least eight tropical cyclones with wind speed of 90-120km/h. ...
This research focuses on assessing the socio-economics impact of the case study: The Ghubbah Mangroves Restoration Project. Such assessment is essential to explore the positive and negative impacts of such projects and determine if the project effectively achieves its goals. The Study is the first of its kind on the Socotra Archipelago. It collected quantitative and qualitative data through the status assessment of the Planted Mangroves, interviews and household surveys conducted in October 2021. Using the "Social Assessment of Protected and Conserved Area" (SAPA) tool, the study provides evidence that the project has achieved its primary goal, and the positive impacts have already begun to emerge in the community's livelihoods.
The study concludes that to achieve sustainability of its activities any conservation project needs to consider economic and social implications of these activities. The local communities are the key driver behind the success of any project of this kind. The project has met four Sustainable Development Goals (1, 2, 13 and 14).
It is recommended to thoroughly document the project’s processes and develop guidelines for good practice in planning and implementing conservation projects, especially mangroves restoration projects. The study recommends adopting the sustainable development approach in disaster response actions.
Furthermore, regular assessments of projects social and economic impacts ensure better effects and outcomes. There is a need to enhance the communication and outreach strategy of the project because they are critical to promoting conservation projects and obtaining community and government advocacy.
Keywords: sustainable development, social impact, climate change, disasters, local community, Socotra, Ghubbah, Yemen, mangroves, world heritage, tourism.
... Germination energy (in %) was defined as the number of germinated seeds determined on day 4 after setting up the germination test from the total number of seeds [42,43] (including all seeds, full and empty). ...
... However, general factors impacting the Socotran terrestrial ecosystems are well understood, such as overgrazing and climate change impacts through recent cyclone effects [13,42,43]. In situ conservation and local seed germination in local nurseries on Socotra combined with replantation in nature (protected from browsing and replanted within the same area to avoid population mixing) are realistic additional strategies for improving natural protection and natural regeneration. ...
The endemic Boswellia species (Burseraceae) on Socotra Island (Yemen) are of great local significance due to their various local ethnobotanical uses. However, despite the fact that these trees are endangered, little is known about their biology. We tested seed germination rates in controlled experiments (trials of 21 days) for two subsequent years and for nine endemic taxa of Boswellia occurring on Socotra Island. For this, seeds were collected island-wide from a wide range of localities and for several populations per species. We observed differences in germination among Boswellia species, among species and localities and among both years, which indicates that the development of seeds is strongly affected by external ecological factors. Although we noted a large variation in seed germination (relatively high in Boswellia socotrana), and half of the species showed relatively low mean daily germination, our study indicated that all endangered endemic Frankincense Tree taxa of Socotra harbor the potential for in situ conservation through recruitment, given that known impacts can be reduced in local replantation areas (e.g., grazing).
... The survival of a rich biodiversity has been attributed to the fact that the island underwent a geological, climatological and partly political isolation, helping the preservation of unique ecosystems (Van Damme & Banfield, 2011). However, since the start of the new millennium the island is undergoing a rapid development and has increasingly been affected by climate change, out of balance with conservation (Van Damme & Banfield, 2011;Attorre & Van Damme, 2020;IUCN World Heritage Outlook, 2020). Cataloguing the rich biodiversity of this Yemeni archipelago is considered of high importance, in particular for the conservation of special habitats, which include the karstic environments. ...
A new species of the thermosbaenacean genus Tethysbaena Wagner, 1994 (Crustacea: Peracarida: Thermosbaenacea) is described based on females from a freshwater cave lake and a brackish coastal well on Socotra Island (Yemen) as Tethysbaena dioscorida n. sp. It is the first representative of the Thermosbaenacea that is described from the Socotra Archipelago and the first member of the order known from an Indian Ocean island. The new species is the eighth known member of what is considered the “ Tethysbaena relicta ” species-group, which is known from Oman (four species), Somalia (one species), Israel (two species) and now Socotra Island (one species). The new species shows closest morphological affinities with T. barbatula Wagner, 2020 from Oman. We suggest that the speciation in this well-defined species-group is due to regressions of the Tethys Sea and the appearance of dry land since the Oligocene-Miocene boundary to the present time, forming major barriers and creating isolated populations of the ancestral species. Also the potential biocrisis in Socotra as a result of developmental activities during the last decades is mentioned, which may affect the subterranean faunas in particular in coastal areas, exemplified by the destruction of one of only two localities where the new species was found.
... In Socotra, luckily the landscape still has its original characteristic with relatively little human interventions [ 69 ], although the natural and human landscape are rapidly changing [ 110 ]. Ethnobotanical knowledge has been preserved within its unique language [ 39 ]. ...
Background
In this study, we present and analyze toponyms referring to Socotra Island’s endemic dragon’s blood tree (Dracaena cinnabari) in four areas of the Socotra Archipelago UNESCO World Heritage site (Republic of Yemen). The motivation is understanding of the past distribution of D. cinnabari trees which is an important part of conservation efforts by using ethnobotanical data. We assumed that dragon’s blood trees had a wider distribution on Socotra Island in the past.
Methods
This research was based on field surveys and interviews with the indigenous people. The place names (toponyms) were recorded in both, Arabic and indigenous Socotri language. We grouped all toponyms into five different categories according to the main descriptor: Terrain, Human, Plant, Water and NA (unknown). In addition, this study identified current and historical Arabic names of dragon’s blood trees of the genus Dracaena, through literature review.
Results
A total of 301 toponyms were recorded from the four study areas in Socotra Island. Among names related to plants, we could attribute toponyms to nine different plant species, of which six names referred to the D. cinnabari tree, representing 14.63% of total phytotoponyms in the category. Three historical naming periods prior to 2000 could be identified. The most commonly used Arabic name for dragon’s blood trees (D. cinnabari, D. serrulata. D. ombet) appears to be “ahrieb” "إعريهب", its resin “dum al-akhawin” “دم الأخوين”, while derived (mixed-cooked) products are called “edah” “إيدع”; while regionally different names can be found.
Conclusion
The place names that refer to D. cinnabari are herein suggested to represent remnant areas of once large populations. The toponyms may therefore support known hypotheses based on climate models that D. cinnabari had a wider distribution on Socotra Island in the past. This study also confirmed the historical importance of dragon’s blood
... An overview of threats to the terrestrial ecosystems in the Socotra Archipelago in a wider context is provided by Van Damme and . Although identified now almost a decade ago, the majority of these challenges are currently still valid in addition to new threats to the Archipelago's biodiversity (Mad era et al., 2019;Attorre and Van Damme, 2020). The main threats (Fig. 9A-D, Fig. 10) include those that impact insular terrestrial ecosystems globally (the last point is specific to Yemen), such as i) unsustainable resource use, including both terrestrial and marine environments (overgrazing, wood consumption, overfishing); this also includes unsustainable tourism, as well as smuggling and deliberate killing of animal and plant resources for short term profit; ii) the breakdown of cultural practices such as loss of local language, dialects and traditional land and sea management laws that connect nature to people; iii) invasive alien species; iv) pollution, waste, chemicals including insecticides; v) soil erosion leading to further degradation of the terrestrial ecosystems and landslides; vi) urban development, road and construction works, stone collection for building, digging and other forms of direct habitat alteration; vii) climate change effects; viii) lack of awareness, both locally and internationally, with regards to the fragility of island ecosystems and extinction risks; ix) reduced capacity and lack of implementation of existing environmental laws as a result economical/political instability; and x) the ongoing war in Yemen, affecting governance by complicating the coordination between major stakeholders regarding conservation issues and decisions. ...
... In order for the local ecosystems to remain resilient against the cumulative effects of ecosystem threats in a rapidly changing climate, we need direct intervention, involvement and cooperation. Major conservation needs based on scientific data, a comparison to other island systems in the world Mad era et al., 2019;Attorre and Van Damme, 2020) and the World Heritage Committee recommendations, added by our comments, are as follows: ...
The Socotra Archipelago contains islands of high conservation importance. Since 2003, the Socotra Archipelago is a UNESCO Man and Biosphere Reserve and since 2008 it was officially listed as a UNESCO Natural World Heritage Site. In addition, the Socotra Archipelago contains currently the only Ramsar Site of Yemen (Detwah Lagoon), and it has been declared as one of 200 WWF Global Ecoregions for its unique terrestrial ecosystems (xeric shrublands), the status indicated as critical/endangered by WWF. Even the freshwater ecosystems that harbor several endemics have been given a special status, as Socotra is recognized as one of the globally outstanding Freshwater Ecoregions of the World. Socotra is also part of the Horn of Africa Biodiversity Hotspot as recognized by Conservation International, and listed as a Centre of Plant Diversity by Plantlife International, ranked among the richest yet most threatened biodiversity areas on the Planet. The Archipelago was declared as its own Ecologically or Biologically Significant Marine Area (EBSA) at the Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD) meeting in 2016, and the same year as an Endemic Bird Area by BirdLife International, which listed several Important Bird Areas (IBAs) for the Archipelago. A number of endemic plants and vertebrates from Socotra have been included in the IUCN Red List, but updates are needed and very few of the many endemic invertebrates have been listed. However, the biodiversity of Socotra is increasingly affected by impacts that affect ecosystems globally, such as unsustainable resource use and global warming which are now visible in the islands. We discuss the main threats and list some general conservation needs in the Socotra Archipelago.
