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... Van den Broeck [1] states that a 'strategic project needs a vision framing it in a specific context, giving it a direction, a meaning, a justification and legitimacy in relation to the social-spatial context'. However, there is not enough evidence connecting drawing with spatial sustainability and how such ideas can be represented within the landscape scale, providing for resilient cities. Adopting questions such as if the landscape can support carbon consciousness [2] and how this is possible, this paper agrees with Sheppard [3], stating that a landscape can be a social mobilisation device; however, when this is seen from a climate and environmental perspective, it is largely neglected. Aragon [4] agrees that a landscape can provide a better way to communicate about climate change and explores artistic artefacts to do so. ...
Acknowledging the importance of climate challenges to our environment, landscape and cities, this review focuses on the exploration of visual methods (e.g., design, drawing, sketches) in relation to a deeper understanding of climate emergency and sustainability on a spatial scale. It provides an overview of existing research and highlights the role design and drawing can play in landscape-led projects, as well as the impact these might have on behavioural change and decision-making. Looking at how design and drawing are perceived in landscape architecture and what their contribution is to the narrative of a project as well as the decisions made, this paper establishes a connection between pictorial forms and landscape. At the same time, this paper explores whether visualisations are used in relation to the climate and environmental challenges we face, sharing some light on the role they can play with regards to climate awareness and sustainability and how important they might be for our communities, cities and regions. This review highlights the need for further research around this topic and explains that there is a minor part of the literature looking at ways in which landscape design can be integrated into the wider climate emergency agenda and how this might influence behavioural change and the decision-making of various stakeholders.
... SDC, 2008;Devine Wright and Devine Wright, 2005). There is little loyalty to suppliers, and decisions to switch are made almost entirely on grounds of price (Boardman and Palmer, 2003). Although long-term contracts are now possible, they are unusual. ...
The main objective of this study is to compare how specific conditions in certain countries (in this case, the UK and Swe-den) can stimulate or attempt to compel householders to be more energy efficient, or can obstruct this. Each country is de-ploying different policies in differing contexts in the attempt to reduce carbon emissions. European goals for energy and emis-sion reductions now constitute the main frame for long-term energy policy changes, but national governments develop and implement policy in contrasting ways. Important aspects are: geographical context, degree of liberalisation of electricity and gas industry, energy systems, metering infrastructure, and the nature of electrical load problems. The following conditions are described and compared in this paper: (1) electricity and gas use; (2) role of utilities and other 'external' agents in residential demand reduction; (3) regula-tions; (4) quality of feedback on energy use to the householder; (5) customer behaviour. The comparison shows the significance of factors that are sometimes overlooked when considering the potential for de-mand reduction and load management, and produces some lessons and questions that are widely applicable.
... Left unanswered are a number of questions regarding customer response. Some of these were addressed in a pre-study for the EU Commission (Boardman and Palmer 2003) -these will be discussed in section 6. However, only one EU country (Austria) has thus far fully complied with the disclosure directive and no comprehensive post-implementation assessments have been carried out. ...
... In the following, I summarise findings from the USA and draw on the scoping study for European adoption (Boardman and Palmer 2003) to point to issues of relevance for Norwegian adaptation. I limit this summary to a discussion of points (1) and (2), having to do with the interface with consumers. ...
... As far as emissions disclosure is concerned, it was not tested in focus groups in the US. In the European study, there was a lower interest in emissions disclosure (compared to power disclosure), mainly because participants in focus groups found the information difficult to understand and interpret (Boardman and Palmer 2003). ...
... One exception is that carbon emission figures (in terms of grams of carbon dioxide per kilometre -gCO 2 /km) are published in advertising material for new cars. In addition, there are plans at an EU level to include carbon emission figures on energy bills (Boardman & Palmer 2003). However, with carbon rationing, carbon becomes a parallel currency and the level of information and education on carbon issues will have to increase considerably. ...
... No present requirement to provide any information about carbon emissions. However there are EU plans to include environmental information on energy bills (EU 2003) and research has been carried out on how best to do this (Boardman & Palmer 2003). ...
The central aim of this thesis is to identify a route to achieve 60% carbon savings in the UK domestic sector by 2050. This has led to two key questions: Is a strategy of relying largely on improvements in energy efficiency likely to achieve the required savings If not, could personal carbon rations offer an alternative route To answer the first question, both the past record and future projections of savings from energy efficiency are investigated. Thirty years of energy efficiency improvements have led to an increase of a third in final energy use, due to a contemporaneous increase in demand for energy services. A bottom-up energy model shows that even modest social and behavioural changes could lead to a future increase in energy consumption of 23% by 2050. In combination with these demand increases, even maximum implementation of energy efficiency measures could only deliver a 17% saving. Policies for improving energy efficiency do nothing to restrain demand for energy services, and this makes it very unlikely they, alone, can deliver 60% carbon savings by 2050. This thesis proposes that personal carbon rationing, for household and personal transport energy, would provide a framework for guaranteed and equitable carbon reductions, within a context of global carbon reductions. Each person would get an equal ration which would reduce over time. Equal carbon rations would not affect everyone equally because emissions currently vary considerably between groups and individuals. Personal carbon emissions for 32 case study individuals varied by a factor of 12. Therefore a variety of responses to rationing will be required, and energy efficiency will remain an important strategy within the rationing framework. It is concluded that personal carbon rations have considerable promise for achieving 60% savings by 2050.
... The proportion that comes from gas, coal, nuclear, renewables, and so forth, will have to be identified, together with the resultant level of carbon dioxide emissions and nuclear waste (though these latter two, separately, may only be provided on a website). With imaginative supporting policies, for instance catalogues, the data will enable consumers to compare company products and, therefore, as a result of liberalisation , to switch on the basis of environmental information, rather than mainly price (Boardman and Palmer, 2003). This will involve the end users in determining the electricity generation mix that they want—it is the extension of democracy to the energy supply world and, together with household-level renewables , is part of the process of decentralising energy decision-making. ...
... This will involve the end users in determining the electricity generation mix that they want—it is the extension of democracy to the energy supply world and, together with household-level renewables , is part of the process of decentralising energy decision-making. Consumers are predicting that they will use disclosure to switch to renewables (Boardman and Palmer, 2003). However, in the UK, relatively few households are purchasing green electricity—about 50,000—so there has not been great enthusiasm for renewable electricity so far. ...
... Energy is invisible, so it is not possible to 'see' the wastage that is occurring, as you can with a dripping tap. One powerful option for the 25 members of the EU through electricity disclosure (Boardman and Palmer, 2003) would be to link the emission factor for that particular company with the actual consumption of the individual and provide a statement on the bill: ...
The market rarely delivers energy efficiency improvements spontaneously, as there is no market push. Consumers are not providing a pull towards energy efficiency, usually because they are ignorant of (or indifferent to) the range on the market, or the energy implications of their purchases. Whilst consumers are concerned about climate change and generally understand the causal role of fossil fuels, they believe either that they have done everything or that one person cannot make a difference. Without a positive design focus from manufacturers or a clear demand from consumers, no part of the market will deliver energy efficiency naturally: policy has to provide the drive. Within the UK, the opportunities to introduce policies based on higher energy prices are constrained by the impact these have on low-income households. This means that product policy (market transformation) has to be the main delivery mechanism for domestic energy efficiency in the UK. The policies adopted so far in the UK and EU have been successful, with existing products, but have not prevented the development of new, profligate equipment. This limited success demonstrates the need for European policy to be more forceful and for policy to involve engagement with manufacturers about the products they are planning to introduce. To motivate consumers, policy should focus on carbon and incorporate feedback. Without these developments, and considerably more activity by the European Commission and Member States, energy efficiency will not contribute its potential to the UK target of 60% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions by 2050.
... The project was led by Oxford University's Environmental Change Institute, and was executed in collaboration of the Stockholm Environment Institute, the Central European University, the Austrian Energy Agency (EVA), IT Power from the UK, and the Oeko Institute from Germany. The final report has now been published (Boardman et al 2003). This fundamental research provided results that enabled the EU to make an informed choice when finalizing the type of disclosure needed for a liberalized EU market. ...
This paper examines reports on work carried out for the European Commission to devise a methodology for estimating the potential impact of smart grids on carbon emissions. It first identifies functionalities that enable carbon benefits to be realised. Each functionality on the demand side is assumed to be mirrored on the supply side, as when dynamic peak shifting ‘replaces’ flexible peak generation. Metrics are developed to describe the state of markets and to estimate customer response to demand response initiatives. Quantitative analysis identifies where the greatest scope for emissions reduction lies, while qualitative assessment indicates where to expect more or less impact from smart grid deployment. The impact of smart grid functionalities by 2020 is then modelled for six representative EU markets (Austria, France, Germany, Great Britain, Portugal and Spain), using a detailed pan-European market model and also a high-level ancillary services model. Three scenarios are developed: baseline, in which no smart grid rollout is assumed; feasible, based on what could be achievable in the light of technology developments and with supportive legislation; and an intermediate expected scenario, in which new technologies are introduced but nothing else changes. The findings indicate the potential for emissions reductions by 2020. They also show that the potential is very unlikely to be reached without regulatory support for user engagement in demand response and demand reduction, along with enabling technology and programmes. Development of regulatory frameworks that allow full advantage to be taken of the new technologies emerges as a challenge for smart grid development.
Energy utilization and carbon dioxide emission during the production of fresh, peeled, diced, and juiced tomatoes are calculated. The energy utilization for production of raw and packaging materials, transportation, and waste management are also considered. The energy utilization to produce one-ton retail packaged fresh tomatoes is calculated to be 2412.8 MJ, whereas when the tomatoes are converted into paste, the energy utilization increases almost twofold; processing the same amount into the peeled or diced-tomatoes increases the energy utilization seven times. In case of juice production, the increase is five times. The carbon dioxide emission is determined by the source of energy used and is 189.4 kg/t of fresh tomatoes in the case of retail packaging, and did not change considerably when made into paste. The carbon dioxide emission increased twofold with peeled or diced-tomatoes, and increased threefold when juiced. Chemical fertilizers and transportation made the highest contribution to energy utilization and CO2 emission. The difference in energy utilization is determined mainly by water to dry solids ratio of the food and increases with the water content of the final product. Environmentally conscious consumers may prefer eating fresh tomatoes or alternatively tomato paste, to minimize carbon dioxide emission.
