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At the next lower level of connectivity illustrated here, all of the linkages shown still represent top-down regulatory pathways traceable back to the brainstem. The connectivity tree still appears very modular. Interestingly, the temporal lobe commands as much real estate on this plot as the thalamus and the frontal lobe. One has to drop down to yet a lower level of connectivity to bring inter-regional connections and linkages back to the brainstem into the picture.
Source publication
This chapter is intended to serve as a counter-point to the other chapters of this book in that it presents neurofeedback as both an alternative and a complement to stimulation-based methods of neurorehabilitation. Neurofeedback is based on learning or a training model, and generally relies on one of two basic approaches: the specific targeting of...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... with the migration to ever lower frequencies there has been a migration toward right-side dominance in the allocation of training time. Every training starts either with right hemisphere training or with inter-hemispheric placement, or both. The standard placements are shown in Figure 14. Since both placements train optimally at the same frequency, it is tempting to suggest that the right hemisphere plays a controlling role in both. In that early phase, left hemisphere training may not even be tolerated in the ILF regime. A kind of scaffolding model applies, in that the foundational protocols enable what follows. One has the strong sense that we are recapitulating the developmental hierarchy, refurbishing functional connectivity relationships sequentially as one ...
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... limited role of top-level executive control in motor activity does not imply the absence of hierarchical control of movement. It's just that the most relevant hierarchy begins at the brainstem rather than in our pre-frontal cortex. Control is implemented through a hierarchical network structure with 'small-world' character. That is to say, there is sufficient global inter-connectivity to draw the whole network into intimate, efficient communication. Once such interconnectivity exists, there is an ineluctable tendency toward the emergence of hierarchy. This tendency is exploited wherever possible. On the large scale, hierarchy emerges over the course of evolutionary development and becomes obvious in the cerebral architecture. This gives brain function the capacity for unitary operation. The gross hierarchy of control is nicely illustrated in a study of structural connectivity in the macaque monkey by Modha and Singh (2010). At the very highest levels of connectivity between hubs, we have top- down control emanating from the brainstem. This is seen in Figure 3. Even at the next lower level of connectivity, all of the control linkages are still top-down, and the appearance is still very modular. This is shown in Figure 4. One has to drop to yet lower levels of connectivity in order to see cortical-cortical and other linkages enter the picture to facilitate global integration and feedback to the brainstem. Figure 3. Linkages with the highest levels of connectivity between regions are illustrated here for the brain of a macaque monkey. The brainstem is seen as the highest level of the regulatory hierarchy. The next level of connectivity includes cortex, the diencephalon (thalamus and hypothalamus), and the basal ganglia. Primary cortical linkages are to the temporal lobe, to frontal cortex, to parietal cortex, to the cingulate gyrus, and to the ...
Context 3
... necessity of allowing for two starting protocols traces to the two core issues. The first is that of calming of the nervous system, which is a priority for those who require the right parietal training. The second is brain stability, which likely determines the ORF whenever it is an issue. Those who need calming as a first priority tend to gravitate to the lowest frequency, whereas those who require stabilization distribute themselves over the spectrum. Some clients require both protocols from the outset. In these cases, we always have one ORF, not two. Figure 14. The two principal starting placements are illustrated here. They target the two primary issues of the regulatory hierarchy, brain stability and arousal regulation. The inter- hemispheric placement targets brain stability, and the parietal placement targets arousal regulation. Both placements target regions where the Default Mode Network is accessible to us at the cortical surface. In a fraction of cases both starting protocols are required from the ...
Citations
... In addition to the external periodic application of electromagnetic fields through tACS, the EEG activity can also be non-invasively modulated by endogenous self-regulation of target EEG activity. EEG biofeedback or neurofeedback (NFB) represents a non-invasive neuromodulation method based on self-regulation of an individual's own brain activity, which is achievable when external (auditory and/ or visual) feedback is provided to the participant (Enriquez-Geppert et al., 2017;Othmer and Othmer, 2017). Imagine that we want to reward an increase in alpha activity (8-12 Hz), which plays a vital role in many brain processes, such as memory (Klimesch, 1999). ...
... high-frequency CFC component (Schroeder and Lakatos, 2009;Canolty and Knight, 2010). Based on biophysical properties of the EEG spectrum, following are the two supporting arguments for this assumption: First, low-frequency EEG bandwidths (delta, theta) and mid-frequency (alpha) tend to have a more long-lasting presence in the EEG spectrum, in contrast to high-frequency EEG activity (beta, gamma), which tends to occur as intermittent phasic bursts (Buzsáki, 2006;Othmer and Othmer, 2017). Second, there is a pink noise-like distribution of the EEG spectrum. ...
... Second, there is a pink noise-like distribution of the EEG spectrum. According to the pink noise-like distribution of the EEG spectrum, the lower the EEG frequency, the more global its occurrence in the brain and vice versa (Buzsáki, 2006;Othmer and Othmer, 2017). Despite these notions, a high CFC component can sometimes act as a driving frequency (Shi et al., 2019). ...
In recent years, the dynamics and function of cross-frequency coupling (CFC) in electroencephalography (EEG) have emerged as a prevalent area of investigation within the research community. One possible approach in studying CFC is to utilize non-invasive neuromodulation methods such as transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) and neurofeedback (NFB). In this study, we address (1) the potential applicability of single and multifrequency tACS and NFB protocols in CFC research; (2) the prevalence of CFC types, such as phase–amplitude or amplitude–amplitude CFC, in tACS and NFB studies; and (3) factors that contribute to inter- and intraindividual variability in CFC and ways to address them potentially. Here we analyzed research studies on CFC, tACS, and neurofeedback. Based on current knowledge, CFC types have been reported in tACS and NFB studies. We hypothesize that direct and indirect effects of tACS and neurofeedback can induce CFC. Several variability factors such as health status, age, fatigue, personality traits, and eyes-closed (EC) vs. eyes-open (EO)condition may influence the CFC types. Modifying the duration of the tACS and neurofeedback intervention and selecting a specific demographic experimental group could reduce these sources of CFC variability. Neurofeedback and tACS appear to be promising tools for studying CFC.
... Two book chapters have been written on the theory underlying ILF NF. One deals with the more general question of the frequency basis of neural organization (Othmer, 2017) and the other concerns itself more directly with the infra-low frequency domain (Othmer, 2020). This theory rests largely on the early work of Nina Aladjalova in identifying and characterizing the Slow Control System in the mammalian brain (Aladjalova, 1964). ...
Cerebral regulation rests on the frequency-based organization of the glial/neuronal system, with primary responsibility falling on the infra-low frequency regime that lies below the EEG spectrum. Conventionally, enhancement of self-regulatory competence is pursued by challenge-based methods targeting either the EEG spectral range or the Slow Cortical Potential domain. They appeal to the fast and the slow control systems, respectively. The virtues of training the slow control system directly with a frequency-based schema is explored in this chapter.
... The rewarded individual frequency was individualized according to so-called Othmer method. Othmer method is based on finding and training the so-called individual optimal EEG frequency (IOF) [49][50][51]. The IOF is the width of the EEG frequency band that is associated with the subjective feeling of mental alertness, relaxation and a sense of calm, which are the subjective hallmarks of optimal arousal. ...
... The IOF is the width of the EEG frequency band that is associated with the subjective feeling of mental alertness, relaxation and a sense of calm, which are the subjective hallmarks of optimal arousal. On the other hand, too high EEG frequency rewarded by NFB can lead to symptoms of high arousal such as anxiety, insomnia, headaches [49][50][51]. Conversely, assuming that too low EEG frequency of NFB is rewarded, symptoms such as apathy, sadness, depressive feelings, and fatigue may occur, illustrating the prevalence of low arousal [49][50][51]. Given that some post-COVID-19 symptoms, such as anxiety, resemble high arousal symptoms, whereas other symptoms, such as depression and fatigue, may resemble low arousal, we hypothesize that Othmer NFB method could be beneficial in reducing the severity of COVID-19 due to normalization of arousal. ...
... On the other hand, too high EEG frequency rewarded by NFB can lead to symptoms of high arousal such as anxiety, insomnia, headaches [49][50][51]. Conversely, assuming that too low EEG frequency of NFB is rewarded, symptoms such as apathy, sadness, depressive feelings, and fatigue may occur, illustrating the prevalence of low arousal [49][50][51]. Given that some post-COVID-19 symptoms, such as anxiety, resemble high arousal symptoms, whereas other symptoms, such as depression and fatigue, may resemble low arousal, we hypothesize that Othmer NFB method could be beneficial in reducing the severity of COVID-19 due to normalization of arousal. ...
Objective
Anxiety, fatigue and depression are common neurological manifestations after COVID-19. So far, post-COVID complications were treated by rehabilitation, oxygen therapy and immunotherapy. Effects of neurofeedback on post-COVID complications and their potential interrelatedness have not been studied yet. In this pilot study, we investigated the effectiveness of neurofeedback (Othmer method) for treatment of fatigue, anxiety, and depression after COVID-19.
Methods
10 participants met inclusion criteria for having positive anamnesis of at least one of the following complications following COVID-19: fatigue, anxiety, and depression which were measured by questionnaires. ANOVA was used for calculating differences in questionnaire score before and after neurofeedback. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was used to calculate correlations between anxiety, depression and fatigue.
Results
After five neurofeedback sessions, there came to significant reduction of severity of post-COVID anxiety and depression persisting for at least one month. Effect of neurofeedback on fatigue was insignificant. Severity of anxiety, fatigue and depression as well as reductions in depression and fatigue were positively correlated with each other.
Conclusion
These findings showed effectiveness neurofeedback for reducing anxiety and depression after COVID-19 and for studying correlations between neurological complications after COVID-19. However, since our pilot clinical trial was open-label, it is hard to differentiate between neurofeedback-specific and unspecific effects on our participants. Future randomized controlled trials with more robust sample are necessary to investigate feasibility of neurofeedback for post-COVID neurological complications. The study has identification number trial ID ISRCTN49037874 in ISRCTN register of clinical trials (Retrospectively registered).
... Rationale for the investigation: In comparison to lower tACS frequencies, higher tACS frequencies, such as 20 and 40 Hz, were found to be associated with lower phosphene threshold [11,23]. Furthermore, 20 and 40 Hz correspond to high frequency EEG activity, namely to beta and gamma EEG activity, which are connected with higher brain arousal compared to lower EEG frequencies such as theta and alpha [24]. For that reason we hypothesized, that higher tACS frequencies will be associated with greater brain arousal and greater activation of stimulated retina and adjacent prefrontal brain areas leading to enhanced ability of brain to generate more different phosphene types. ...
... 20 Hz and 40 Hz) could lead to more robust cortical effects that could hypothetically be responsible for a greater number of perceived phosphenes. Moreover, lower EEG frequencies are usually associated with lower arousal, whereas higher EEG frequencies are usually associated with higher arousal [24]. Consequently, since both frontal beta as well as gamma activity are associated with higher level of vigilance [24], attention [35] and working memory processes [36], it is therefore possible that greater number of reported phosphene types perceived at these higher EEG frequencies, is due to greater activation of memory and attention systems that affect phosphene perception. ...
... Moreover, lower EEG frequencies are usually associated with lower arousal, whereas higher EEG frequencies are usually associated with higher arousal [24]. Consequently, since both frontal beta as well as gamma activity are associated with higher level of vigilance [24], attention [35] and working memory processes [36], it is therefore possible that greater number of reported phosphene types perceived at these higher EEG frequencies, is due to greater activation of memory and attention systems that affect phosphene perception. However, because our study included neither EEG recordings, nor objective measures of arousal level, it remains unknown whether tACS actually modulated EEG activity and arousal level. ...
Phosphene is the experience of light without natural visual stimulation. It can be induced by electrical stimulation of the retina, optic nerve or cortex. Induction of phosphenes can be potentially used in assistive devices for the blind. Analysis of phosphene might be beneficial for practical reasons such as adjustment of transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) frequency and intensity to eliminate phosphene perception (e.g., tACS studies using verum tACS group and sham group) or, on the contrary, to maximize perception of phosphenes in order to be more able to study their dynamics. In this study, subjective reports of 50 healthy subjects exposed to different intensities of retinal tACS at 4 different frequencies (6, 10, 20 and 40 Hz) were analyzed. The effectiveness of different tACS frequencies in inducing phosphenes was at least 92 %. Subject reported 41 different phosphene types; the most common were light flashes and light circles. Changing the intensity of stimulation often induced a change in phosphene attributes. Up to nine phosphene attributes changed when the tACS intensity was changed. Significant positive correlation was observed between number of a different phosphene types and tACS frequency. Based on these findings, it can be concluded that tACS is effective in eliciting phosphenes whose type and attributes change depending on the frequency and intensity of tACS. The presented results open new questions for future research.
... Othmer's method of rewarding optimal training EEG frequency is based on individual adjustment of NFB-rewarded EEG frequency band width (Othmer and Othmer, 2017;Othmer, 2020). Optimal rewarded EEG frequency (ORF) is associated with mental state during which one feels calm, alert and relaxed and it is connected with the state of so-called optimal arousal (Othmer and Othmer, 2017;Othmer, 2020). ...
... Othmer's method of rewarding optimal training EEG frequency is based on individual adjustment of NFB-rewarded EEG frequency band width (Othmer and Othmer, 2017;Othmer, 2020). Optimal rewarded EEG frequency (ORF) is associated with mental state during which one feels calm, alert and relaxed and it is connected with the state of so-called optimal arousal (Othmer and Othmer, 2017;Othmer, 2020). On the other hand, too high NFB-rewarded frequency is linked with irritating symptoms such as headaches, anxiety, onset insomnia, and nightmares which are the signs of high arousal (Othmer and Othmer, 2017;Othmer, 2020). ...
... Optimal rewarded EEG frequency (ORF) is associated with mental state during which one feels calm, alert and relaxed and it is connected with the state of so-called optimal arousal (Othmer and Othmer, 2017;Othmer, 2020). On the other hand, too high NFB-rewarded frequency is linked with irritating symptoms such as headaches, anxiety, onset insomnia, and nightmares which are the signs of high arousal (Othmer and Othmer, 2017;Othmer, 2020). This may be in accordance with positive linkages between excessive high beta activity and neurological disturbances such as anxiety (Walker, 2010;Díaz et al., 2019), headaches (Walker, 2011) and insomnia (Perlis et al., 2001;Hammer et al., 2011). ...
Theoretical considerations related to neurological post-COVID complications have become a serious issue in the COVID pandemic. We propose 3 theoretical hypotheses related to neurological post-COVID complications. First, pathophysiological processes responsible for long-term neurological complications caused by COVID-19 might have 2 phases: (1) Phase of acute Sars-CoV-2 infection linked with the pathogenesis responsible for the onset of COVID-19-related neurological complications and (2) the phase of post-acute Sars-CoV-2 infection linked with the pathogenesis responsible for long-lasting persistence of post-COVID neurological problems and/or exacerbation of another neurological pathologies. Second, post-COVID symptoms can be described and investigated from the perspective of dynamical system theory exploiting its fundamental concepts such as system parameters, attractors and criticality. Thirdly, neurofeedback may represent a promising therapy for neurological post-COVID complications. Based on the current knowledge related to neurofeedback and what is already known about neurological complications linked to acute COVID-19 and post-acute COVID-19 conditions, we propose that neurofeedback modalities, such as functional magnetic resonance-based neurofeedback, quantitative EEG-based neurofeedback, Othmer’s method of rewarding individual optimal EEG frequency and heart rate variability-based biofeedback, represent a potential therapy for improvement of post-COVID symptoms.
... Most participants were unable to detect this mild pulse. This is a form of neurofeedback that allows the brain to make refinements to its processes, based on the subtle neurofeedback signal that it receives (Othmer, 2017). ...
... In contrast to tACS, NFB-related modulation of EEG is based on endogenous self-regulation of brain activity using NFBrewarded patterns of brain activity (Egner and Sterman, 2014;Wang et al., 2016;Othmer and Othmer, 2017). NFB includes several different modalities such as EEG biofeedback, functional MRI (fMRI), and functional near-red spectroscopy (fNIRS) (Muñoz-Moldes and Cleeremans, 2020). ...
... For this purpose, EEG activity is detected from the electrodes on the participant's scalp. The target EEG activity, which is intended to be modulated, is set as the NFB-rewarded frequency (Egner and Sterman, 2014;Othmer and Othmer, 2017). Once the particular NFB-rewarded EEG activity reaches the level, which is at least as high as the rewarding threshold, the NFB system generates visual and/or auditory feedback (Enriquez-Geppert et al., 2017). ...
Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) and neurofeedback (NFB) are two different types of non-invasive neuromodulation techniques, which can modulate brain activity and improve brain functioning. In this review, we compared the current state of knowledge related to the mechanisms of tACS and NFB and their effects on electroencephalogram (EEG) activity (online period/stimulation period) and on aftereffects (offline period/post/stimulation period), including the duration of their persistence and potential behavioral benefits. Since alpha bandwidth has been broadly studied in NFB and in tACS research, the studies of NFB and tACS in modulating alpha bandwidth were selected for comparing the online and offline effects of these two neuromodulation techniques. The factors responsible for variability in the responsiveness of the modulated EEG activity by tACS and NFB were analyzed and compared too. Based on the current literature related to tACS and NFB, it can be concluded that tACS and NFB differ a lot in the mechanisms responsible for their effects on an online EEG activity but they possibly share the common universal mechanisms responsible for the induction of aftereffects in the targeted stimulated EEG band, namely Hebbian and homeostatic plasticity. Many studies of both neuromodulation techniques report the aftereffects connected to the behavioral benefits. The duration of persistence of aftereffects for NFB and tACS is comparable. In relation to the factors influencing responsiveness to tACS and NFB, significantly more types of factors were analyzed in the NFB studies compared to the tACS studies. Several common factors for both tACS and NFB have been already investigated. Based on these outcomes, we propose several new research directions regarding tACS and NFB.
... It is plausible to assume that disruptions within the regulatory mechanisms and the RSN consequently affect an individual during active states. If chronic pain is caused by maladaptive plasticity within RSN and disruptions in ISO, neurofeedback which aims to renormalize the abnormal resting state rhythms might decrease symptom severity (Othmer et al. 2013(Othmer et al. , 2016(Othmer et al. , 2017. Researchers have used sensory motor rhythm neurofeedback with positive outcomes on pain and fatigue in FM patients (Kayiran, et al., 2010). ...
... EEG-electrodes were places on T3-T4, with reference electrodes on Cz and forehead, in accordance with the 10-20 system. This positioning of the electrodes is a good starting point according to the literature(Othmer & Othmer, 2017). EEG signal was recorded with NeuroAmp DC-amplifier and processed by the Cygnet software (BEE medic GmbH). ...
Background: One of the main motives for why individuals seek medical attention is pain.
Fibromyalgia (FM) is a condition characterized by chronic pain, fatigue, and cognitive
complaints, which severely disrupts an individual’s quality of life. Medical providers and
researchers have not been able to find a There is no cohesive theory of why some individuals have fibromyalgia. Consequently, there is a lack of adequate diagnostic tools, unsatisfactory treatment, and uncertainty amongst patients. Previous studies have found fibromyalgia patients to display significant alterations in central mechanisms, functional connectivity in the resting-state networks and cortical areas identified as the Dynamic Pain Connectome (DPC).
Aims: This study consists of two parts. It aims to (1) identify whether individuals suffering
with fibromyalgia significantly differ in the temporal dynamics of the brain, and if this is
related to cortical areas involved in the DPC. The second part wishes to (2) investigate the
clinical benefits of infra-low frequency neurofeedback treatment (ILF-NFT) on fibromyalgia symptoms.
Method: FM patients received ILF-NFT, which included pre- and post-treatment clinical
measures with a 19-channel EEG recording and self-reports of symptom severity. Power
spectra analysis was conducted to look for deviations in the theta, alpha and beta frequency, derived from frontal, central, temporal, and parietal electrodes.
Results: A Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test found significant decreases in symptoms following
ILF-NFT, indicating that the treatment targets cortical activity associated with pain, fatigue, and cognitive complaints. Several of the participants had deviations which were source localized in key DPC-nodes. The limitations of this study are further discussed.
... Whereas nearly all of the terms of discourse utilized in connection with ILF neurofeedback resist rigorous quantification, there is one singular exception, namely the relationships among the optimal response frequencies that prevail at the different training sites. 31 It is found that the ORFs for right-lateralized placements stand in harmonic relationship to the ORFs in left-lateralized placements. The ratio is universally a factor of two, with the left hemisphere at the higher frequency. ...
Infra-Low Frequency Neurofeedback is a method of endogenous neuromodulation that engages the foundations of the regulatory hierarchy in the frequency domain. As such, it has broad applicability to neural dysregulation kindled during early development, comprising mainly physical and emotional trauma. Whereas principal application is to trauma syndromes encountered in the clinical population, much of which is traceable to events in early childhood, the method is broadly applicable to the enhancement of neural regulatory function in the population at large. It appears that most of us with brain-based clinical concerns are compromised in functionality to some degree in a manner that can be remediated with Infra-Low Frequency Neurofeedback. The absence of reinforcers makes this a self-guided journey to recovery, the path illuminated by the frequency-specific dynamics of the Slow Cortical Potential. This monograph is an augmented version of Chapter 3 in Restoring the Brain, Second Edition; Hanno Kirk, editor; Taylor and Francis (2020).
... The natural frequency is a frequency of a body structure system that vibrates when dislodging and afterward immediately discharged and also appearing of freely vibrating when the component set in movement [4]. ...
Evaluation, monitoring and comparison of traffic safety in various territories presents a major challenge to the traffic safety researches. Vibration is a natural phenomenon that can occur in a various medium such as ground, air, and water produced by a movement of living or non-living thing. Vehicle is one of the factors that can cause vibration to the ground whether it is moving or at rest. The vibration sometimes can be a nuisance for certain time by giving negative effects to the receiving things. Effect of the vibration can also make local residents nearby a speed hump feel uncomfortable and annoyed with the vibration produced when a heavy vehicle passing over the speed hump. Therefore, to address this problem, following objectives have been developed: - 1) To investigate the relationship between the type of a vehicle and the ground vibration generated by the vehicle that goes through the speed hump. 2) To analyse the effect of vehicle speed and the ground vibration produced when the vehicle passing through the speed hump. The method used to perform this study is vibration monitoring method by using ICP accelerometer and data acquisition unit and also DEWEsoft X3 to interpret peak particle velocity for each data. LiDAR speed gun was used to observe the speed of a vehicle passing over the speed hump. From the total of twelve data, results indicate the highest peak particle velocity reading for the vibration is at 0.69 mm/s produced by the largest vehicle and the lowest is 0.36 mm/s produced by the slowest vehicle when it passed over the speed hump. As conclusion, the higher the speed of a vehicle passing over the speed hump the higher peak particle velocity produced and the type of a vehicle will produce different peak particle velocity depends on the weight of a vehicle.
