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![Application examples and requirements, massive vs. critical IoT [1].](profile/Michael-Andersson-6/publication/309117864/figure/fig1/AS:428678371909638@1479216296754/Application-examples-and-requirements-massive-vs-critical-IoT-1.png)
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Lifetime is a critical parameter in ubiquitous, battery-operated sensors for machine-to-machine (M2M) communication systems, an emerging part of the future Internet of Things. In this practical article, the performance of radio frequency (RF) to DC energy converters using transparent and flexible rectennas based on graphene in an ambient RF energyh...
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... machines is already an important component in automated production, but in the future, areas such as smart energy distribution [2], health care [3] and smart cities [4] will also rely on Internet access. The market is now expanding toward both massive IoT deployment and more advanced solutions that may be categorized as critical IoT, as shown in Fig. 1. In massive IoT applications, such as sensors that report wirelessly to the cloud on a regular basis, the price of the communication link must be sufficiently low for the business case to make sense. In particular, the cost of the power supply is a great challenge in many wireless M2M applications, and there is an increasing demand for ...
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... with the year 2020 consumption and a reporting interval of several times per day. However, in a scenario in which only flexibility is required, printed carbon could instead be the material of choice for the antenna [18]. Furthermore, a state-of-the-art transparent graphene antenna provides a decent 30% bat- tery lifetime increase, as shown in Fig. 10. The consump- tion of the transceiver with the employed reporting scheme is ∼10 µW on ...
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Although Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) have been an active field of research for many years, the modules incorporated by WSN nodes have been mainly manufactured utilizing conventional fabrication techniques that are mostly sub-tractive, requiring significant amounts of materials and increased chemical waste. The new era of the Internet-of-Things...
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... Source: Vakil and Bajwa (2014) Besides the screen-printing method to deposit graphene onto substrates, CVD is also one of the popular ways to deposit graphene onto substrate in the facilitation process of graphene antennas. The feasibility of ambient radio frequency energy harvesting using flexible, transparent graphene antennas for the field of selfsustainable machine-to-machine communication was investigated (Andersson et al. 2016). The energy harvested from the ambient radio frequency range aims to improve the sensor's battery life in IoT applications. ...
Harvesting energy from microwave frequency is one of the key areas of research in the past decade to provide an alternative power source for wireless devices and sensor networks. The increase in the employment of Internet of Things (IoT) devices as well as sensors in order to support technological advancement leads to an increase in the energy demand. This in turn leads to environmental pollution due to the large amount of batteries being disposed. As such, in order to support the current demand for clean and sustainable energy that can reduce environmental pollution, various approaches to reduce the usage of conventional batteries in these systems are being researched. One of the approaches is the usage of the antenna to harvest radio frequency energy. The appearance of graphenebased material further sparked the interest of researchers due to its exciting properties. Therefore, this paper aims to provide a comprehensive review on the advancement of the usage of graphene-based material in the field of harvesting ambient radio frequency energy. Graphene material is first introduced in order to understand its characteristics and properties as a replacement for the conventional copper material. Current state-of-the-art approaches on graphene-based radio frequency energy harvesting systems were then reviewed and compared. The future prospect of graphene-based material in energy harvesting systems was also presented and discussed, shedding light on the future potential areas for research and development.
... We initially present a brief history on the development of these technologies, starting from Maxwell's equations up to present (Section II). To assess the feasibility of RF EH, firstly we need to understand the available power levels in the environment [10], [11], [12], [13], [14], [15]. Section III summarizes a series of ambient RF power measurement campaigns that have been made worldwide and highlights the bands with higher power density in cities and suburban areas. ...
Radio frequency (RF) energy harvesting and wireless power transmission (WPT) technologies —both near-field and far-field—have attracted significant interest for wireless applications and RFID systems. We already utilize near-field WPT products in our life and it is expected that RF EH and far-field WPT systems can drive the future low-power wireless systems. In this article, we initially present a brief historical overview of these technologies. The main technical challenges of rectennas and WPT transmitters are discussed. Furthermore, this paper presents the recent advances on the development of these technologies, including the possibility of powering RFID systems through the millimeter wave power from 5G networks, the trends in flexible rectennas design and the technological developments on the simultaneous wireless information and power transfer (SWIPT).
... This process makes it possible to store electricity that is produced at times of low generation cost demand or from intermittent energy sources, to be used in periods of high demand, high generation cost or when there is no other source of generation available [3]. The numerous existing energy storage systems are: [8] • Long life flywheels • High power flywheels • Compressed air • Hydraulic pumping • Supercapacitors • High power capacitors • Magnetic superconductors • Batteries ...
... As can be seen in figure.2 they show how batteries cover higher energy capacity for longer time, capacitors can be designed for high duration, low capacity or high capacity, low duration, but are not capable of large-scale storage; compressed air is the best technology, with almost indefinite storage periods, but with a slightly lower capacity [8]. Storage technologies provide many solutions for power systems. ...
... Storage technologies provide many solutions for power systems. Storage technologies are based on the accumulation, in various forms, of primary mechanical, magnetic, chemical, and thermal energy, which is then transformed into a final form of energy, electrical energy, through one or more processes [8]. ...
Currently, the use of energy from the environment to generate electricity has triggered applications like Energy Harvesting because it is an ecological and autonomous energy that can be used in countless applications, the disadvantage of these systems is the storage system so in this research, a literature review of the use of storage technologies for their implementation in energy Harvesting systems has been carried out. The main objective is to evaluate the performance of the soul-saving systems by making a comparison with existing batteries on the market, with an analysis of the modelling and simulation through Wolfram System Modeler where it allows to understand the behavior of the charging and unchanging processes from the results obtained in energy harvesting systems previously developed by students of the Technical University of Ambato obtaining parameters involved in them to test the Energy Harvesting system with different batteries and thus, achieve greater energy re-collection and storage. These results are very promising because it has been possible to demonstrate by simulation and measurement that the batteries contained in their composition are suitable for Energy Harvesting systems.
... IoT systems on which the safety of users depends and IoT systems on which specific response times, fault tolerance, etc. have to be met in order to perform suitably. Some of these critical IoT systems could be those focused on healthcare, traffic safety and control (IoV) or industry (IIoT) (Andersson et al. 2016). ...
... SSD as a full wave bridge rectifier has only been evaluated on graphene-based SSD targeting a higher Terahertz frequency region. However, the feasibility issues and usefulness of a graphene based rectenna in ambient RF harvesting is minimal [30] and patterning issues of graphene for integration with electronic devices in the realization of monolithic-integration microwave integrated circuits (MMIC) is a big hurdle to overcome [31]. Therefore, in this paper, the capability of a silicon-based SSD to function as a full-wave bridge rectifier to convert RF to DC is examined and concluded for better integration with current CMOS technology, and for future implementation in a RF-DC energy harvesting system. ...
... SSD as a full wave bridge rectifier has only been evaluated on graphene-based SSD targeting a higher Terahertz frequency region. However, the feasibility issues and usefulness of a graphene based rectenna in ambient RF harvesting is minimal [30] and patterning issues of graphene for integration with electronic devices in the realization of monolithic-integration microwave integrated circuits (MMIC) is a big hurdle to overcome [31]. Therefore, in this paper, the capability of a silicon-based SSD to function as a fullwave bridge rectifier to convert RF to DC is examined and concluded for better integration with current CMOS technology, and for future implementation in a RF-DC energy harvesting system. ...
The rapid growth of wireless technology has improved the network’s technology from 4G to 5G, with sub-6 GHz being the centre of attention as the primary communication spectrum band. To effectively benefit this exclusive network, the improvement in the mm-wave detection of this range is crucial. In this work, a silicon self-switching device (SSD) based full-wave bridge rectifier was proposed as a candidate for a usable RF-DC converter in this frequency range. SSD has a similar operation to a conventional pn junction diode, but with advantages in fabrication simplicity where it does not require doping and junctions. The optimized structure of the SSD was cascaded and arranged to create a functional full-wave bridge rectifier with a quadratic relationship between the input voltage and outputs current. AC transient analysis and theoretical calculation performed on the full-wave rectifier shows an estimated cut-off frequency at ~12 GHz, with calculated responsivity and noise equivalent power of 1956.72 V/W and 2.3753 pW/Hz1/2, respectively. These results show the capability of silicon SSD to function as a full-wave bridge rectifier and is a potential candidate for RF-DC conversion in the targeted 5G frequency band and can be exploited for future energy harvesting application.
... The second area of investigation is the selection of new materials because as the frequency increases, metals become very resistive. The results obtained using this type of diode around 30 THz are more encouraging [86,87,[97][98][99][100][101][102][103]. ...
Schottky diode (SD) has seen great improvements in the past few decades and, for many THz applications, it is the most useful device. However, the use and recycling of forms of energy such as solar energy and the infrared thermal radiation that the Earth continuously emits represent one of the most relevant and critical issues for this diode, which is unable to rectify signals above 5 THz. The goal is to develop highly efficient diodes capable of converting radiation from IR spectra to visible ones in direct current (DC). A set of performance criteria is investigated to select some of the most prominent materials required for developing innovative types of electrodes, but also a wide variety of insulator layers is required for the rectification process, which can affect the performance of the device. The current rectifying devices are here reviewed according to the defined performance criteria. The main aim of this review is to provide a wide overview of recent research progress, specific issues, performance, and future directions in THz rectifier technology based on quantum mechanical tunneling and asymmetric structure.
... In addition to the potential receiving antenna fabrication methods discussed above there are transparent antennas available for the application of RF energy harvesting [190], [255]. Thomas et al. presented a transparent antenna based on transparent conductive oxide (AgHT) for solar panel integration and RFEH [256]. ...
Radio frequency energy harvesting (RFEH) and wireless power transmission (WPT) are two emerging alternative energy technologies that have the potential to offer wireless energy delivery in the future. One of the key components of RFEH or WPT system is the receiving antenna. The receiving antenna’s performance has a considerable impact on the power delivery capability of an RFEH or WPT system. This paper provides a well-rounded review of recent advancements of receiving antennas for RFEH and WPT. Antennas discussed in this paper are categorized as low-profile antennas, multi-band antennas, circularly polarized antennas, and array antennas. A number of contemporary antennas from each category are presented, compared, and discussed with particular emphasis on design approach and performance. Current design and fabrication challenges, future development, open research issues of the antennas and visions for RFEH and WPT are also discussed in this review.
... The interested reader is referred to the good overviews available on the topic, for instance, [17], [78], [79], [80]. Our approach can be combined with energy harvesting and any sensor or microprocessor as only feature extraction, multiplication with a weight value and evaluation of a stochastic process are required [81]. ...
Ambient intelligence demands collaboration schemes for distributed constrained devices which are not only highly energy efficient in distributed sensing, processing and communication, but which also respect data privacy. Traditional algorithms for distributed processing suffer in Ambient intelligence domains either from limited data privacy, or from their excessive processing demands for constrained distributed devices. In this paper, we present Camouflage learning, a distributed machine learning scheme that obscures the trained model via probabilistic collaboration using physical-layer computation offloading and demonstrate the feasibility of the approach on backscatter communication prototypes and in comparison with Federated learning. We show that Camouflage learning is more energy efficient than traditional schemes and that it requires less communication overhead while reducing the computation load through physical-layer computation offloading. The scheme is synchronization-agnostic and thus appropriate for sharply constrained, synchronization-incapable devices. We demonstrate model training and inference on four distinct datasets and investigate the performance of the scheme with respect to communication range, impact of challenging communication environments, power consumption, and the backscatter hardware prototype.
... Areas like smart energy distribution, health care, and smart cities are going to rely on internet access. With the increasing trend in the number of Internet of Things (IoT) and connected devices, the potential of energy harvesting from radiofrequency sources is gaining attraction [7]. Hence, in order to achieve the required potential of the internet of things low cost and eco-friendly antenna materials have to be flexible [8]. ...
In this paper, the Radiating element of a patch antenna for energy harvesting application was fabricated using the graphene ink-based screen printed method. Wax-coated paper and polyester were investigated as flexible substrates to mount the graphene radiating element. FR4, the typical material used in electronic circuitry was also considered as a substrate for comparison. The performance of the antenna was measured by using the standard method of Vector network analyzer. Simulation of the antenna performance was carried out using a material-based software tool, COMSOL Multiphysics and the simulated results have been compared with prototyped results. The proposed design is targeted at 2.45 GHz wireless energy harvesting applications. An experimental trial of replacing conventional copper mechanism with state of art material is studied for its performance.
... Radio frequency (RF) band for GSM, 3G, LTE, and Wi-Fi with frequencies between 900 MHz and 2.6 GHz are considered as one of the potential and optimistic sources in urban environment due to their greatest amount of ambient energy. However, there is a need for low-cost and eco-friendly antenna materials that are flexible and/or optically transparent to fully embody the ubiquitous potential of IoT [7]. Flexible wireless sensors could be integrated as wearables in clothing [8] or directly on the human body to monitor, for instance, the temperature, blood pressure and heart rate of patients on a continuous basis [9]. ...
In this paper, a flexible and semi-transparent antenna is proposed having impedance bandwidth of 110 MHz (from 2.45 GHz to 2.56 GHz) of ISM band which covers the most popular (2.4 GHz) for Wi-Fi application all over the world. A simple dipole shape rectangular ring antenna with two extended edge on the opposite sides was prepared by laser direct writing on an Au sputtered PET film. The center part of the antenna was kept empty and transparent intentionally to incorporate with either a planar capacitor for microwave wireless charging or to integrate this antenna with a solar cell in future. The compact, miniature and flexibility of the antenna are suitable for easy integration in any smart devices or clothing for wireless charging to implement self-powered sensors. The performance of the patch antenna is evaluated using return loss (S11) parameter analysis. A measured reflection coefficient and simulated current distribution along with radiation pattern demonstrate that the fabricated antenna is suitable for Wi-Fi application.
