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Anatomy of the digestive tract of a bearded dragon illustrated by a photograph of the ventral view in situ after removal of the liver only (3A) for comparison to the radiologic views; dorso-ventral view (3C) of the same animal at 12 h postbarium administration (3B) and right lateral view at 1 h following gavage of 15 ml/kg of a 35% w/v barium suspension into the thoracic esophagus (3C).
Source publication
The positive contrast gastrointestinal study is a common non-invasive diagnostic technique that does not require anesthesia and enables good visualization of the digestive tract. Radiographic anatomy and reference intervals for gastrointestinal contrast transit time in inland bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps) were established using seven animals a...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... to the left of midline. Grossly, the esophageal mucosa had longitudinal folds, which were visible as ra- diopaque lines on the radiographs (Fig. 2). The stomach of all bearded dragons was located on the left side of the body, elongated longitudinally in a J-shape, as previously described, 16 with the small curvature oriented toward mid- line ( Fig. 3A and B). The cardia was observed as an area of smaller diameter than the esophagus, craniomedial to the gastric fundus (Fig. 3C). Rugal folds of the stomach mu- cosa appeared as radiographic filling defects in the gastric lumen. Radiographically, the pyloric antrum was visible as a distinct narrowing of the stomach body, just proximal ...
Context 2
... the radiographs (Fig. 2). The stomach of all bearded dragons was located on the left side of the body, elongated longitudinally in a J-shape, as previously described, 16 with the small curvature oriented toward mid- line ( Fig. 3A and B). The cardia was observed as an area of smaller diameter than the esophagus, craniomedial to the gastric fundus (Fig. 3C). Rugal folds of the stomach mu- cosa appeared as radiographic filling defects in the gastric lumen. Radiographically, the pyloric antrum was visible as a distinct narrowing of the stomach body, just proximal to the pylorus. The pylorus was located to the left of midline, caudomedial to the stomach body (Figs. 3A and ...
Context 3
... of the barium at the different time intervals is presented in Table 1 and Figs. 5 and 6. Lateral views did not provide additional information because the barium was mostly confined to the region ventral to the lungs and caudal to the heart, where all the digestive structures were superimposed in the midcoelom, except the esophagus and the colon (Figs. 3C, 7A and B). In most lizards, no radio- graphic changes were observed between 36 and 96 h after barium administration (Fig. 6). There was no difference in colon filling time between males and females (P = 0.56). There was no relationship between body weight and filling time (r = 0.22, P = ...
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... Finally, the pill reaches the rectum and is expelled within 12-72 h post-ingestion. Transit time can be influenced by factors such as food presence, fluid intake, gastrointestinal motility, and hormonal and neural regulation [23]. These factors cause a great inter-individual variability and an additional difficulty to standardize pill ingestion timings. ...
Objectives
The purpose was to directly assess in-competition thermoregulatory responses in recreational runners during a city marathon conducted in cool, ambient conditions using a two-pill ingestion strategy.
Methods
Thirty-two recreational runners (age: 38.7 ± 10.2 years, mass: 73.9 ± 11.0 kg, height: 177 ± 8 cm) were invited to participate in this study. Core temperature was continuously assessed using telemetric ingestible pills. Each runner swallowed two pills: the first pill (Pill 1) 11 h:47 min ± 1 h:01 min pre-race (before overnight sleep) and the second (Pill 2) 2 h:35 min ± 0 h:54 min pre-race (on wakening).
Results
Pre-race core temperature for Pill 1 was significantly different from Pill 2, with values of 37.4 ± 0.4 °C and 37.1 ± 0.6 °C, respectively (p=0.006). The mean core temperature during the race was higher for Pill 1 compared to Pill 2 (38.5 ± 0.5 °C and 37.8 ± 1.0 °C, respectively; p<0.001). Peak core temperature was higher for Pill 1 compared to Pill 2 (39.1 ± 0.5 °C and 38.8 ± 0.5 °C, respectively; p=0.03). Post-race core temperature was higher for Pill 1 compared to Pill 2 (38.8 ± 0.7 °C and 38.1 ± 1.3 °C, respectively; p=0.02).
Conclusions
The timing of pill ingestion significantly impacted core temperature and hence timing of pill ingestion should be standardised (5 h:30 min–7 h prior to measurement). Despite the relatively cool ambient conditions during the race, a significant number of runners achieved a high core body temperature (≥39 °C), which was not accompanied by any signs of heat illness.
... The lighting cycles were of 14 hours of light and 10 hours of darkness. The animals were fasted for 48 hours before diagnostic imaging (based on gastrointestinal transit time previously described on bearded dragons) to ensure that the gastrointestinal tract was empty (Grosset et al., 2014). Coelomic ultrasound was performed the CT study to describe the appearance of the celomic organs and has been previously published (Melero et al., 2020). ...
Background
Veiled chameleon (Chamaeleo calyptratus) and panther chameleon (Furcifer pardalis) are two of the most popular pet chameleons, and consequently, these species are frequently evaluated in veterinary practices. According to our review of the literature, normal computed tomography (CT) anatomy of these lizards has not been previously described.
Aim
The purposes of this prospective study were to describe the normal CT anatomy of the coelomic organs in healthy patients and to provide normal reference values in these species.
Methods
Seventeen clinically healthy veiled chameleons and 15 clinically healthy panther chameleons were included. All CT studies were performed with the chameleons under light anesthesia and positioned in sternal recumbency. Studies were performed with a 16-slice helical CT scanner with a slice thickness of 0.625 mm. The authors recorded qualitative and quantitative CT characteristics of the coelomic structures. Macroscopic cross-sectional anatomy was performed for comparison of the CT findings.
Results
Heart, lungs, liver, including caudal vena cava, hepatic vessels, gallbladder, esophagus, stomach, intestines, gonads, fat bodies, kidneys, and urinary bladder could be visualized with CT. The spleen, pancreas, and adrenal glands could not be identified.
Conclusion
This study provides a guide to the normal cross-sectional and computed tomographic anatomy of the coelomic cavity in veiled and panther chameleons. Our results could be used as a reference for future research studies or comparison of clinically ill patients.
... Bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps) are one of the few squamate species with published DI data [2,3]. Retrospective studies have highlighted the prevalence of intra-coelomic disease in bearded dragons [4,5]. ...
... Coelomic palpation is insensitive, and DI is often necessary for diagnosis of common disease processes, such as gastrointestinal (GI) obstruction, coelomic organ neoplasia, reproductive disease, etc [6,7,8]. Enteral positive contrast radiography is routinely utilized in reptiles, but has significant limitations, as it only provides indirect information about non-GI organs of the coelom [2,9]. Additionally, squamates generally have slow GI transit times, with reported barium GI transit times in healthy bearded dragons of 12 72 hours [2], which could delay diagnosis and require multiple radiographs, increasing cost and possible sedative or anesthetic events. ...
... Enteral positive contrast radiography is routinely utilized in reptiles, but has significant limitations, as it only provides indirect information about non-GI organs of the coelom [2,9]. Additionally, squamates generally have slow GI transit times, with reported barium GI transit times in healthy bearded dragons of 12 72 hours [2], which could delay diagnosis and require multiple radiographs, increasing cost and possible sedative or anesthetic events. Negative contrast radiography (use of room air, carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), nitrous oxide (N 2 O), or other gases) is another option to increase coelomic contrast. ...
Background
Contrast radiography is used to combat poor coelomic detail encountered in reptilian radiographs. This study describes pneumocoelomography, a novel negative contrast technique using room air in bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps). The feasibility of this technique, its tolerance by the study subjects, and obtained images were evaluated.
Methods
Six clinically healthy, adult bearded dragons had standard and pneumocoelomogram radiographs performed under anesthesia. Pneumocoelom was induced by insufflating 0.2mL/mm coelomic length of room air via an over-the-needle catheter introduced into the coelom. Pre-, post-, and positive intravenous contrast-enhanced post-pneumocoelom computed tomography scans were also performed. Packed cell volume, total protein, and blood films were evaluated at time of imaging and two weeks post-procedure to assess potential systemic consequences of this technique.
Results
Procedures were well tolerated with no adverse anesthetic, recovery, post-procedural, hematologic, or behavioral declines in health status. The pneumocoelomogram consistently revealed the gonads (6/6 cases) in both sexes. There was an inconsistently improved characterization of other coelomic organs: the cardiac silhouette was improved in 4/6 cases, trachea in 2/6, lungs in 3/6, stomach in 3/6, cecum in 3/6, colon in 5/6, and kidneys in 2/6. The liver, spleen, and small intestines did not show improved characterization in any case.
Conclusion
Room air pneumocoelomography offers a well-tolerated, readily-available technique and provides additional coelomic organ characterization to that of standard radiographs. Future studies should evaluate if this technique provides diagnostic utility in pathological states.
... In dogs and cats, position and conspicuity of thoracic and abdominal structures have been well documented to vary between projection angles (Ruehl and Thrall, 1981;Armbrust et al., 2000;Avner and Kirberger, 2005;Marolf et al., 2008;Kirberger et al., 2009;Vander Hart and Berry, 2015;Thrall, 2017;Mavromatis et al., 2018). The normal radiographic gastrointestinal anatomy and barium sulfate contrast transit time have been described in the green iguana (Smith et al., 2001) and bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps) (Grosset et al., 2014) by means of dorsoventral and horizontal beam right lateral views. Our group is unaware of published literature investigating the effect of horizontal vs. vertical radio-graphic beam orientation and the potential differences between right and left lateralities in lizards. ...
A prospective study was performed in 12 green iguanas (Iguana iguana) to compare the radiographic appearance of coelomic viscera. Five radiographic projections (views) of the coelom were obtained: dorsoventral, right lateral vertical beam, left lateral vertical beam, right lateral horizontal beam, and left lateral horizontal beam. One week later, the same radiographic projections were obtained after oral administration of barium. In 4 of the 12 green iguanas, an additional vertical beam ventrodorsal view was obtained. In comparing lateral projections, lung, liver, and gonads were best imaged in horizontal beam lateral projections, before distention of the stomach with barium, whereas the gastrointestinal tract including the colon was best visualized in vertical beam lateral projections. The shape and size of the cardiac silhouette was considered equivalent between analogous lateral projections in most green iguanas (10 [83%] of 12). In comparing ventrodorsal and dorsoventral projections, the ventrodorsal projections improved visibility of the cardiac silhouette and lung in 4 (100%) of 4 green iguanas, while reducing cardiac length. Dorsoventral projections were preferred for the evaluation of the gastrointestinal tract. This study demonstrates that radiographic beam orientation and patient position result in obvious radiographic differences of the iguanid coelom and that projections are not interchangeable
... Only few studies about this topic had been published. A study with Pogona vitticeps demonstrated a median contrast transit time to the colon was 31 hours, and longest was 72 hours [16]. Another study, in the same species, demonstrated contrast transit time to the cloaca at >32 [17]. ...
Background
Alternatives to gross external anatomical sex determination are often required, peculiarly in species displaying poor or absent gross sexual dimorphism, such as the beaded lizard. This study evaluates results of hemipenile contrast radiography accuracy as compared to ultrasonography of the same beaded lizard (Heloderma alvarezi and Heloderma horridum).
Methods
Eleven captive adult beaded lizards (four Heloderma alvarezi and seven Heloderma horridum), underwent hemipenis contrast radiography, and results compared with coelomic ultrasound.
Results
By ultrasound, 2 lizards were females and 9 were males. By contrast hemipenis radiography, 2 animals were females and 9 were males. In this sample, there was a Kappa concordance of 1.
Conclusions and clinical relevance
In this species, contrast hemipenis radiography proved to be a reliable diagnostic tool for hemipenes identification, and sex determination with all test specimens. Further studies including a larger number of animals and different lizard species are warranted.
... Barium sulfate 30% weight per volume dilution was selected based on the findings of a study in red-eared sliders, a similarly sized chelonian species. 7 The volume of barium sulfate administered was selected based on recommendations for reptiles 22,23 and data from the pilot study in these individuals. It is notable that this volume dosage is almost double the volume dosage used in a similar study in red-eared sliders 7 concern, an enema administration of positive contrast media may be more appropriate to better visualize these structures. ...
Gastrointestinal disorders are an important cause of morbidity in box turtles (Terrapene carolina Carolina), however published information is currently lacking on the normal radiographic anatomy, transit, and emptying times of the gastrointestinal tract. A total of 15 healthy box turtles were recruited for this prospective, anatomic, reference interval study. Three‐view radiographic series (vertical beam dorsoventral, horizontal beam latero‐lateral, and horizontal beam rostrocaudal views) were acquired prior to contrast administration, and following contrast administration at 0, 20, 40, 60, and 90 min, 2, 4, 8, 12, and 24 h post administration, and every 24 h thereafter until all contrast was eliminated (15 mL/kg barium sulfate diluted to 30% weight per volume was administered via orogastric gavage). Vertical beam dorsoventral and horizontal beam latero‐lateral views were of excellent quality to identify gastrointestinal structures. The horizontal beam rostrocaudal view immediately postcontrast administration provided gastric and pyloric identification but had lesser diagnostic use at later time points due to anatomical superimposition. The gastrointestinal tract was composed of a tubular stomach, a pyloric sphincter near midline, a duodenum with a cranial flexure in the right cranial coelomic cavity, small intestines within the right coelom, a small cecal bulb, and a transverse and descending colon. Contrast media entered the large intestine by 24 h in all turtles, and a pyloro‐colic indentation was noted at the proximal descending colon. The large intestinal emptying was highly variable due to the interindividual variability of contrast sequestration within the cecal bulb. Findings from the current study serve as a reference on the gastrointestinal anatomy, transit, and emptying times in healthy eastern box turtles; and introduce a novel, horizontal beam, rostrocaudal view for gastrointestinal contrast studies in chelonians.
... Among the most common causes of radiological and ultrasound consultations in reptiles, the literature mentions diseases of the cardiovascular, skeletal, gastrointestinal and genitourinary systems (1,7,12). The cases analyzed here partially confirm the literature data. ...
Reptiles are becoming increasingly popular animals in amateur husbandry in Poland and worldwide. The world literature, however, does not provide data on the actual causes of radiological and ultrasound consultations in certain groups of animals, including reptiles. The aim of the study was the analysis of causes and results of diagnostic imaging examinations. The study was based on the data of 75 lizards which were patients of the university diagnostic imaging service in the years 2006-2014. The most common clinical signs in those animals were visible body deformations (33.33%), loss of body weight (30.67%) and loss of appetite (26.67%). In cases in which a preliminary diagnosis had been made, the largest proportion of animals were referred with suspected post-traumatic changes (12%), dystocia (10.67%) and ileus (9.33%). In diagnostic imaging tests, musculoskeletal (29.33%) and coelomic abnormalities (40.33%) were most commonly confirmed. Coelomic changes affected mainly the liver, reproductive system and gastrointestinal tract. For the musculoskeletal system, the most frequently identified causes were the presence of post-traumatic changes, malformations of the vertebral column, as well as metabolic bone disease. Cardiorespiratory and urinary problems were observed only sporadically. In twenty-two animals (29.33%), radiographic and ultrasound examinations failed to establish a diagnosis. The results of this study provide valuable data on the cross-section of the most common problems leading to diagnostic imaging evaluation in lizards. This research demonstrates that, despite the growing popularity of exotic animals, most of the problems diagnosed in such animals still arise from inappropriate breeding and housing conditions. In most cases, diagnostic imaging provides valuable information, making it possible to implement further steps....
... The most recent of these publications proposes gastrointestinal nomenclature on the basis of the anatomic description and functional information acquired from contrast radiography. 13 In the present study, we used nomenclature provided in that report, 13 with the following gastrointestinal segments in order from orad to aborad: stomach (cardia, fundus, and pylorus), duodenal bulb, duodenum, jejunum, ileum, cecum, colon, and cloaca. ...
... The most recent of these publications proposes gastrointestinal nomenclature on the basis of the anatomic description and functional information acquired from contrast radiography. 13 In the present study, we used nomenclature provided in that report, 13 with the following gastrointestinal segments in order from orad to aborad: stomach (cardia, fundus, and pylorus), duodenal bulb, duodenum, jejunum, ileum, cecum, colon, and cloaca. ...
Objective:
To determine which organs can be reliably visualized ultrasonographically in bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps), describe their normal ultrasonographic appearance, and describe an ultrasonographic technique for use with this species.
Design:
Cross-sectional study.
Animals:
14 healthy bearded dragons (6 females and 8 males).
Procedures:
Bearded dragons were manually restrained in dorsal and sternal recumbency, and coelomic organs were evaluated by use of linear 7- to 15-MHz and microconvex 5- to 8-MHz transducers. Visibility, size, echogenicity, and ultrasound transducer position were assessed for each organ.
Results:
Coelomic ultrasonography with both microconvex and linear ultrasound transducers allowed for visualization of the heart, pleural surface of the lungs, liver, caudal vena cava, aorta, ventral abdominal vein, gallbladder, fat bodies, gastric fundus, cecum, colon, cloaca, kidneys, and testes or ovaries in all animals. The pylorus was visualized in 12 of 14 animals. The small intestinal loops were visualized in 12 of 14 animals with the linear transducer, but could not be reliably identified with the microconvex transducer. The hemipenes were visualized in 7 of 8 males. The adrenal glands and spleen were not identified in any animal. Anechoic free coelomic fluid was present in 11 of 14 animals. Heart width, heart length, ventricular wall thickness, gastric fundus wall thickness, and height of the caudal poles of the kidneys were positively associated with body weight. Testis width was negatively associated with body weight in males.
Conclusions and clinical relevance:
Results indicated coelomic ultrasonography is a potentially valuable imaging modality for assessment of most organs in bearded dragons and can be performed in unsedated animals.
A 3-yr-old female spayed bearded dragon ( Pogona vitticeps ) with lethargy, inappetence, and pale mucous membranes was presented to the clinic 3 days after being fed wild garlic ( Allium ursinum ). Diagnostic testing, including hematology, blood chemistry, and whole body radiographs, and a parasitological examination (flotation, native preparation) revealed low-grade leukocytosis (20,000/µl), anemia (hematocrit of 8%), and a parasite infestation with oxyurids and flagellates. The animal was hospitalized and treated with enrofloxacin IM, SteroG5 SC, activated charcoal and lactulose PO, Vit B complex SC, iron IM, Zylexis SC, fenbendazole PO, metronidazole PO, and HerbiCare PO and supplemental oxygen via an oxygen cage. During the animal’s hospitalization, the partner animal, a 3-yr-old male bearded dragon, was presented to the hospital for examination and also was found to be anemic, with a significantly decreased hematocrit of 11%. Because of the life-threatening anemia, both animals underwent whole blood transfusion via intraosseous catheter from two donor animals of the same species on day 2 of hospitalization. Two days posttransfusion, both animals showed an increase in hematocrit and improvement of their general condition. Fourteen days posttransfusion, hematocrit levels had increased to 16% in the female and 20% in the male and both animals showed completely normal species-specific behavior and general condition.
Simple Summary
Digital radiography has long been established in veterinary clinics, leading to increased use of digital systems in reptile species as well. In this study, we used different digital radiography systems on cadavers of bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps). We aimed to examine the impact of a radiation dose reduction on the image quality and the assessment of defined skeletal structures. We employed a blinded assessment and a defined scoring system to evaluate the techniques tested. Our results demonstrate that both a 50% and a 75% reduction in the radiation dose significantly decreased image assessments. These findings highlight the need for correct radiation dose protocols to produce high-quality radiographs in reptile species.
Abstract
Three different digital detector systems were used to study the effect of a defined radiation dose reduction on the image quality of digital radiographs in bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps). A series of radiographs of seven bearded-dragon cadavers with a body mass ranging from 132 g to 499 g were taken in dorsoventral projection. The digital systems employed included two computed radiography systems (CR) (one system with a needle-based and one with a powdered-based scintillator) and one direct radiography system (DR). Three levels of the detector dose were selected: A standard dose (defined based on the recommended exposure value of the CRP, D/100%), a half dose (D/50%), and a quarter dose (D/25%). Four image criteria and one overall assessment were defined for each of four anatomic skeletal regions (femur, rib, vertebra, and phalanx) and evaluated blinded by four veterinarians using a predefined scoring system. The results were assessed for differences between reviewers (interobserver variability), radiography systems, and dosage settings (intersystem variability). The comparison of the ratings was based on visual grading characteristic (VGC) analysis. Dose reduction led to significantly lower scores in all criteria by every reviewer, indicating a linear impairment of image quality in different skeletal structures in bearded dragons. Scores did not differ significantly between the different systems used, indicating no advantage in using a computed or direct radiography system to evaluate skeletal structures in bearded dragons. The correlation was significant (p ≤ 0.05) for interobserver variability in 100% of the cases, with correlation coefficients between 0.50 and 0.59. While demonstrating the efficacy of the use of digital radiography in bearded dragons and the similar quality in using different computed or direct radiography systems, this study also highlights the importance of the appropriate level of detector dose and demonstrates the limits of post-processing algorithm to compensate for insufficient radiation doses in bearded dragons.
