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Millets are a traditional staple food of the dryland regions of the world and are rich in essential nutrients like protein, fatty acids, minerals, vitamins, and dietary fiber. Also, millets commonly synthesize a range of secondary metabolites to protect themselves against adverse conditions. These factors are collectively termed anti‐nutritional fa...
Citations
... Although phytic acid and tannins are present, they can help regulate blood cholesterol levels in specific cases (Daduwal et al., 2024;Muthamilarasan et al., 2016). Various processing steps like dehulling, soaking, germination, milling, fermentation, and parboiling can greatly impact millet starch digestibility (Tharifkhan et al., 2021). Due to its relatively lower cost in comparison to crops like rice, corn and sugarcane, PM exhibits significant potential in several food applications. ...
Pearl millet is a widely cultivated crop that finds its way into a variety of cuisines around the globe. It is esteemed for its nutritional advantages, highlighting the importance of large-scale processing. It stands out as a sustainable and eco-friendly crop, demonstrating remarkable adaptability in both arid and rainfed areas. Its high productivity coupled with minimal water needs positions it as a significant contributor to addressing food insecurity and poverty challenges. This review highlights the significance of pearl millet as a promising source for the production of glucose, malt, and sugar syrup. The advancements in the sugar extraction process, focusing on techniques such as enzymatic hydrolysis and the application of hydraulic press mechanization has been examined. The implementation of strategies aimed at enhancing sugar-syrup production from PM presents a promising opportunity to decrease dependence on traditional sugar production methods, which typically require significant inputs from high-input crops.
... Although phytic acid and tannins are present, they can help regulate blood cholesterol levels in specific cases (Daduwal et al., 2024;Muthamilarasan et al., 2016). Various processing steps like dehulling, soaking, germination, milling, fermentation, and parboiling can greatly impact millet starch digestibility (Tharifkhan et al., 2021). Due to its relatively lower cost in comparison to crops like rice, corn and sugarcane, PM exhibits significant potential in several food applications. ...
Pearl millet is a widely cultivated crop that finds its way into a variety of cuisines around the globe. It is esteemed for its nutritional advantages, highlighting the importance of large-scale processing. It stands out as a sustainable and eco-friendly crop, demonstrating remarkable adaptability in both arid and rainfed areas. Its high productivity coupled with minimal water needs positions it as a significant contributor to addressing food insecurity and poverty challenges. This review highlights the significance of pearl millet as a promising source for the production of glucose, malt, and sugar syrup. The advancements in the sugar extraction process, focusing on techniques such as enzymatic hydrolysis and the application of hydraulic press mechanization has been examined. The implementation of strategies aimed at enhancing sugar-syrup production from PM presents a promising opportunity to decrease dependence on traditional sugar production methods, which typically require significant inputs from high-input crops.
... The addition of exogenous enzymes for oxalate reduction has also been extensively examined as potential approach for oxalate reduction considering its specificity targeting oxalate without affecting other phytochemicals in food, as possible (Tharifkhan et al., 2021). One study exploring oxalate in taro flour found that addition of oxalate oxidase (produced by Fusarium oxysporum RBP3) resulted in a 98.3% removal of total oxalate (Kizhakedathil et al., 2022). ...
Oxalic acid is among the most abundant organic acids found in different biospheres, including plants, as an end product of metabolism. It forms either soluble or insoluble salts with monovalent or divalent cations, respectively. Then, consumption of oxalic acid-rich foods in human diets, particularly leafy vegetables (e.g., spinach, tea, and rhubarb), affects minerals absorption such as calcium. Meanwhile, its high level in blood is associated with many diseases such as hyperoxaluria systemic oxalosis and is thus classified among potential anti-nutrients. Various factors have affected oxalic acid levels in foods, including agricultural traits and consumption practices. Hence, the current review aimed at rediscovering oxalic acid dietary sources, metabolism, and the various processes employed to reduce its content in foods, and consequently, health harmful effects. Among them are physical/cooking, chemical, fermentation, and biotechnological processing. Recent biotechnological approaches have been attempted to produce transgenic crops remodeling oxalate metabolism, particularly its degradation. The soluble form of oxalate seems to be better absorbed and more harmful than insoluble salts in foods aiding in kidney stones formation. Cooking (e.g., boiling, microwaving, and steaming) appears as a useful management strategy to reduce soluble oxalate and, therefore, lowering oxaluria. The present review provides new perspectives on different processing methods to lower oxalate in essential vegetables highlighting their advantages or any limitations to aid improve these foods nutritional value and consumption.
... For example, fermentation can lower phytate content by up to 40%, improving mineral bioavailability. Further breeding efforts to minimize these antinutrients in millets, thereby enhancing their nutritional value, may help promote their utilization as a reliable source of dietary minerals (75). Future research may include identifying genetic variants with naturally low antinutrient levels, developing biofortified varieties that maintain high nutrient content while minimizing antinutrients, and exploring enzymatic treatments that break down antinutrients during processing. ...
Millets, a varied collection of small-seeded crops from the Poaceae family, are re-emerging as a viable alternative for sustainable food and nutritional security in the context of climate change. Historically a staple in India, millet consumption declined during the Green Revolution due to emphasis on rice and wheat. However, their nutritional enrichment and climate resilience are rekindling interest. Over ten millet species, including sorghum, pearl, and finger millet, are cultivated globally and thrive in marginal lands with minimal water and low nutrients. Their C4 photosynthetic pathway enhances water-use efficiency, making them suitable for hot, dry climates. Despite their benefits, millets face challenges, such as consumer preferences for rice and wheat and vulnerabilities to extreme weather events. Nevertheless, they offer significant nutritional advantages, including high levels of dietary fiber, essential amino acids, vitamins, and minerals. India is a leading millet producer, cultivating various types and experiencing a recent production surge. Investigations into the resilience of millets underscore their capacity to endure environmental stresses. Strategies for improving millet crops include conventional breeding, mutation breeding, and advanced techniques like CRISPR-Cas9. Bio-fortification efforts aim to address micronutrient deficiencies, with promising results in finger millet varieties. Advancements in genetic engineering and genome editing tools are revolutionizing millet improvement. The pangenome concept, which explores genetic diversity within species, offers a framework for developing enhanced cultivars. Integrating wild millet varieties into breeding programs can further unlock their potential. Comprehensive policy initiatives supporting millet cultivation, research, and public awareness are crucial for promoting these nutrient-rich grains, enhancing food security, and fostering sustainable agriculture.
... For example, Zhang et al. 29 demonstrated the enhancement of nutritional quality in cassava flour through fermentation, emphasizing significant increases in protein and essential amino acids. Similarly, studies by Tharifkhan et al. 30 on the fermentation of millet indicated improved nutrient bioavailability and digestibility, correlating with changes in enzymatic activity profiles. ...
... The nutritional value of germinated millets is directly proportional to the germination time, as it increases the bioavailability of minerals. Germination also enhances enzyme activity and utilization of fat as an energy source, which may result in a decrease in fat content [38,39]. ...
... This makes granules of starch readily available to hydrolysing enzymes, leading to the fragmentation of starch chains and making them easily digestible. Hence, germination makes protein and starch more digestible with little effort [23,38,40]. Technology offers a fast and cost-effective way of converting grains into food through fermentation, which is a process that partially resembles germination and involves the use of microorganisms. ...
... Fermentation and malting processes can significantly reduce the levels of anti-nutrients, such as amylase inhibitors, trypsin, and phytic acid [2], by creating an ideal pH range for the enzymatic breakdown of phytate, which is found in millets in complexes with polyvalent cations such as iron, zinc, calcium, and magnesium, and proteins. The endogenous phytases in fermented millets can reduce phytic acid and polyphenols, and the polyphenol oxidase content is increased [38]. Additionally, fermented finger millet has been found to contain higher levels of some vitamins, such as niacin and riboflavin, and amino acids, including cysteine and methionine [47]. ...
In recent years, there has been a surge in the popularity of minor millets, also called ancient grains. As a result, there has been a growing interest in the potential health benefits and unique dietary properties that these foods offer. Once considered a forgotten crop, millet has gained popularity as part of efforts to achieve sustainable development goals. With a growing population, there is a need to explore sustainable methods to provide food and nutritional security to people, and millets offer a promising solution to this objective. This literature review aims to provide a thorough and all-encompassing overview of the geographical distribution of minor millets, as well as the challenges and opportunities associated with their production. Additionally, this review will investigate the nutritional benefits of minor millets and their potential for use in the development of value-added products.
... Bioaccessibility refers to the amount of nutrients available for intestinal absorption. The quantity of ingested nutrients, which is then absorbed and utilised is defined as bioavailability [71,72], and it indicates nutritional effectiveness. Bioavailability is affected by the form in which the nutrient is incorporated, its chemical bonding and its interference with other nutrients, which can either enhance or inhibit absorption or post-absorption metabolism. ...
The necessity for countries in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) to be self-sustaining in the fight against food and nutrition insecurity is of crucial importance to maintain their autonomy. Promoting indigenous, drought-tolerant crops is a potential way of mitigating the impacts of climate change and supplementing maize, whose productivity has declined due to dependency on erratic rain-fed agriculture. Millets are known for their high amount of macro- and micronutrients (such as B vitamins, potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, zinc, copper and manganese). However, millets also contain significant amounts of anti-nutritional factors (polyphenols, enzyme inhibitors and phytates), resulting in low bioavailability of the minerals and proteins. This has led to employing a number of processing techniques during millet meal production to reduce these effects. Hence, this chapter focuses on evaluating millet processing techniques applied (e.g., soaking, dehulling, steaming, controlled germination and roasting) and their influence on the anti-nutritional factors, nutritional composition and functional properties of millet meals based on the available literature reports. This review demonstrated the importance of millet processing technologies in removing anti-nutritional factors that could reduce the bioavailability or bioaccessibility of essential nutrients.
... Each sample was soaked for 18 hours ( Table 2) at 32˚C temperature in water with pH 7. Several studies indicate that soaking at a higher temperature and for a longer duration (10-24 hours) facilitates increased water absorption and decreased phytic acid content. Therefore, in our study, browntop millet was soaked for 18 hours at 32˚C, which was the room temperature during the summer months when the study was carried out [22][23][24][25]. After soaking, the unabsorbed water was filtered using filter paper grade BIO-2 and measured in a measuring cylinder having an accuracy of ±1.0 ml to check the water absorbency of BTM in milliliters. ...
Background:
Methods of incorporating millets in daily diets are increasingly being explored to suit the consumer's changing needs. They are consumed mainly in low-middle-income countries. Data (functional, sensory, physical, and nutritional) to support browntop millet (BTM) use in various minimally processed/convenience foods is scanty.
Objectives:
This study was carried out to study the water absorption capacity and viscosity of whole browntop millet (WBTM) grains and WBTM flour at different ratios with water after autoclaving and blending and to explore the scope of developed BTM pastes, which could be used for preparing a variety of products.
Methods:
WBTM grain pastes and WBTM flour pastes were prepared in different ratios of water, such as 1:2, 1:2.5, 1:3, 1:3.5, 1:4, 1:4.5, 1:5, 1:5.5, 1:6, 1:6.5.
Results:
It was found that the viscosity of pastes made from WBTM grain ranged from 40911±1469 to 66867±7469 mPa's at 24.2±0. 2 to 24.7±0.1˚C at 84.7±3.3 to 95.3±3.0% torque respectively. RPM ranged from 11.9±0.2 to 18.6±0.5. The viscosity of WBTM flour pastes ranged from 33874±2864 to 45792±1664 mPa's at 24.2±0.1 to 24.5±0.3°C at 81.7±1.7 to 89.1±3.0% torque with 10.8±1.2 to 13.3±3.2 RPM respectively.
Conclusion:
The viscosity of WBTM grain pastes was statistically greater than the viscosity of WBTM flour pastes at a 5% significant level. Such pastes can be explored as convenience foods (ready to cook/ ready to eat) for use at household and commercial levels to produce products similar to bread, extruded products such as noodles, pasta, snacks etc.
... Additionally, there was an increase in the total DF. Soaking for 60 min increased the potassium and manganese contents in millets, decreased the tannin, phytate and total phenolic content, thus increasing the nutritive value of the millets (Tharifkhan et al. 2021). Owheruo et al. (2019) evaluated the effect of gemination on finger millet and pearl millet and it was reported that germination increased the protein content, crude fibre, alkaloid and saponin contents with reductions in tannins and phytates. ...
... Tharifkhan et al. (2021) explained the application of numerous enzymes like phytase, polyphenol oxidase (PPO), tannases, cellulase, xylanase, and proteases in millets and their products, along with the scientific results. In particular, the enzyme protease aids the hydrolysis of complex polypeptides and results in the formation of free amino acids and small units of peptides; it enhances the bioavailability nature of those components. ...
Millets are tiny grass‐seeded grains that hold major and minor nutrients and chief bioactive components. They are climate flexible and pest‐resistant grains, enhancing the crop system effectively. Millets are now gaining popularity due to their health‐promoting properties for end users. These nonacid‐forming grains are gluten‐free, stabilize blood sugar, lower cholesterol levels, inhibit human colon tumor growth, combat malnourished diseases, control overweight, and have other health‐promoting benefits. However, many food processing technologies are on hand to process millets into a broad array of value‐added products, but still, the implementation in the food processing industries is skimpy at the commercial level. There are many factors right from the farming stage, like unavailability of good quality seeds, suitable machinery, lack of technical knowledge, and the consumer's misconception of millet's sensory properties, all contribute to low demand in the market. However, considering millet's copious potentialities, the research on these grains is grasping the spotlight in the current era. Therefore, millets would greatly increase demand in the market and create boundless avenues to manufacture millet‐based foods on a commercial scale. Hence, the current article intends to comprehensively review millet processing technologies and bioprocessing approaches, including health benefits. In addition, it also highlighted the recent R & D innovations with millets and millet products in the global market, preservation constraints, and future challenges.
Practical Applications
Millets are the neglected ancient grains of the world, although they are a treasure trove of nutrients and promote alluring health benefits. The current review analysis fosters various notions to bridge a gap between industrialist and consumers for the high‐level production and consumption of millets in various countries. The compiled information comprises deep insights into major food processing technologies for each millet and listed globally available millet‐based products. In addition, it provides the millet shelf‐life issues, which would be helpful for researchers to tackle these issues with millets in the future. The present study advises increasing the high‐value utilization of millet and millet‐based products at commercial scales. This article attracts scientists, industrialists, researchers, scholars, and budding entrepreneurs. Among all the cereals, millets are superior in the nutritional profile, sustainable production patterns, and friendlier to the farmers, planet, and consumers.
