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Mosquitoes are insects belonging to the order Diptera and family Culicidae. They are distributed worldwide and include approximately 3500 species, of which about 300 have medical and veterinary importance. The evolutionary success of mosquitoes, in both tropical and temperate regions, is due to the various survival strategies these insects have dev...
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... is important to highlight that in this species, males do not undergo diapause, thus, they inseminate females and then die, as they cannot overwinter [31,33,84]. The Anopheles and Culex species reported as exhibiting adult diapause are listed in Table 3 [38,40,75,[85][86][87][88][89][90][91][92][93][94]. ...
Citations
... Schäfer and Lundström (2014) also mentions Aedes sticticticus species. Floodwater mosquitoes lay their eggs, which can remain viable for many years, individually on moist soil above the water line to await flooding, leading to explosive populations following heavy rainfall or tidal flooding (Diniz et al., 2017). Strong winds associated with flooding storms may kill many adult mosquitoes if safe resting locations are not abundant (de Souza and Weaver, 2024). ...
The coexistence of humans and nature has been a recurring theme throughout history, gaining particular importance in the context of climate change and the sustainability of our planet for future generations. However, the delicate balance between humans and nature is often disrupted, as exemplified by the Litovelské Pomoraví Protected Landscape Area in Czechia, where close interaction between humans and mosquitoes is a persistent issue. In this area, when environmental conditions are favorable for mosquito outbreaks, the local population living near the floodplain forests experiences significant discomfort for extended periods. The risk of mosquito overpopulation has intensified in recent years, largely attributed to climate change. Rising water temperatures in breeding habitats accelerate the developmental cycles of certain mosquito species, shortening the time required for maturation. This study aims to utilize modern geoinformation techniques to assess mosquito activity within the Litovelské Pomoraví region and evaluate the perceived impact on human populations. The methodological approach integrates the development of a representative population distribution layer and participatory mapping. These efforts culminate in the identification of active mosquito zones and the quantification of the at-risk population. While long-term data indicate that the situation is not deteriorating significantly, the study confirms that elevated mosquito activity continues to disrupt the daily lives of residents and visitors. Notably, summer mosquito outbreaks exert a broader impact than spring outbreaks, affecting both a larger geographic area and a greater proportion of the population. The study's primary output, the spatial delineation of active mosquito zones and the identification of continuously populated areas at risk, holds significant value for the integrated management of the region. These findings can help mitigate the annual occurrence of mosquito outbreaks, improve the health of the floodplain forest ecosystem, and promote biodiversity conservation.
... Diapause and quiescence are dormancy mechanisms observed in many species of mosquitoes that allow them to ensure survival during and after environmental stress. Depending on the species, dormancy can occur at different stages of the mosquito life cycle and is triggered mainly by photoperiod, temperature, and humidity [16]. Although quiescence affects egg hatch rates and is common in tropical mosquitoes, diapause can affect the larval and adult stages of mosquitoes and it affects temperate mosquitoes. ...
An ordinary differential model is proposed to understand the role of egg quiescence on the efficacy of releasing the Wolbachia-carrying mosquito to suppress or diminish the wild mosquito population. The model has up to four steady states, which are: the persistence of the uninfected population and the extinction of the infected one, the persistence of the infected population and the extinction of the uninfected one, the extinction of both populations, and the persistence of both populations. Their stability is given by four thresholds; two are the fitness of infected and uninfected populations when isolated, and the other two are the relative fitness when they are competing. Bifurcation diagrams, phase space, and parameter space are shaped by the sex ratio that can be manipulated by the Wolbachia symbiont. A sensitive analysis indicates that the uninfected population always maximizes its fitness according to the environmental conditions throughout, changing the quiescence rate. Because Wolbachia-infected eggs do not survive quiescence or adults emerging from it are infertile, the risk of arbovirus transmission increases during or after environmental stress that triggers quiescence. This can jeopardize the use of Wolbachia-infected mosquito to control arbovirus transmissions in regions where quiescence occurs at a high rate.
... Future winters are expected to become not only warmer but also more variable, potentially exacerbating these trade-offs. Warming temperatures in the fall or early winter may delay dormancy initiation for many ectotherms (Bradshaw and Holzapfel 2001;Tobin et al. 2008;Gallinat et al. 2015), as some quiescent ectotherms have low temperature thresholds that must be met before dormancy can begin (Tauber and Tauber 1976;Diniz et al. 2017;Gill et al. 2017;Denlinger 2022;Teets et al. 2023). This delay may cause these animals to deplete energy stores before dormancy has begun but after food resources have disappeared. ...
... While quiescence is characterized by an immediate response to environmental changes at arbitrary developmental stages, diapause represents an endogenously programmed halt in development. The ontogenetic stage during which diapause occurs varies from species to species (Danks, 1987;Diniz et al., 2017;Hand et al., 2016;Koštál, 2006). Even though diapause is under genetic control, it is often triggered by changes in environmental factors, for example, photoperiod and temperature (Diniz et al., 2017;Koštál, 2006;Lopes et al., 2004). ...
... The ontogenetic stage during which diapause occurs varies from species to species (Danks, 1987;Diniz et al., 2017;Hand et al., 2016;Koštál, 2006). Even though diapause is under genetic control, it is often triggered by changes in environmental factors, for example, photoperiod and temperature (Diniz et al., 2017;Koštál, 2006;Lopes et al., 2004). ...
Diapause is a survival strategy for freshwater crustaceans in the genus Daphnia that involves a genetically encoded inhibition of organism growth, development and reproduction. While the environmental triggers for Daphnia to produce diapause‐destined embryos and those that induce hatching are well documented, the influence of environmental challenges during different diapause sub‐phases remains unexplored.
In this study, we exposed diapause‐destined embryos of Daphnia magna to different temperatures and light conditions during designated diapause sub‐phases.
Our results underscore the importance of the maternal environment for the embryos that are in preparation for diapause. Moreover, we demonstrate a period of obligate developmental arrest during which reinitiation of development cannot be triggered. Additionally, we illustrate the embryos' ability to adjust hatching in response to environmental changes during the hatching process.
This study reveals the inherent developmental pattern in Daphnia embryos as they progress through diapause and their adaptability to environmental changes.
... Diapause allows insects to survive adverse conditions, conserve energy, and synchronize their life cycles with favourable environmental conditions. For example, The European corn borer is a moth species that infests corn and other crops (Diniz et al, 2017). It exhibits facultative diapause, meaning it can enter diapause based on environmental cues. ...
Insects are a highly diverse group of organisms that have successfully colonized nearly every corner of the Earth. Their remarkable ability to thrive in various habitats can be attributed to a range of physiological adaptation mechanisms. This chapter explores the fascinating ways in which insects have adapted to different environmental conditions, with a focus on examples and references that highlight their remarkable adaptability.
... This simplified representation of the urban dengue virus transmission cycle is most applicable to non-endemic temperate and sub-tropical regions, where the likelihood of multiple serotypes circulating simultaneously is reduced and the population's prior exposure to dengue virus is limited 19 . Our model incorporates detailed species-specific processes, such as diapause, quiescence, the water dynamics of developmental habitats, and developmental plasticity that causes adult traits to vary in response to the environmental conditions experienced by juveniles throughout development 20,21 . We use data from published laboratory experiments to parametrise multidimensional reaction norms describing how temperature, larval density, precipitation dynamics, and photoperiod alter the traits of mosquitoes within and across developmental stages. ...
... Egg diapause is a form of regular dormancy that allows eggs to withstand cold temperatures and is the primary mechanism by which Ae. albopictus populations persist and overwinter in temperate climates 74 . Once development is complete, both diapausing and nondiapausing eggs either become quiescent, a form of irregular dormancy that allows persistence through dry periods or immediately hatch into larvae 20 . Quiescence continues until the dormant egg is inundated by precipitation after which it immediately hatches. ...
... Active eggs develop at a temperature-dependent rate, immediately hatching once development is complete if they are at or below the current water level and moving into the quiescent class otherwise 75 . Quiescent eggs remain dormant until inundated by precipitation after which they immediately hatch 20 . Hatched eggs enter the larval class. ...
The incidence of vector-borne disease is on the rise globally, with burdens increasing in endemic countries and outbreaks occurring in new locations. Effective mitigation and intervention strategies require models that accurately predict both spatial and temporal changes in disease dynamics, but this remains challenging due to the complex and interactive relationships between environmental variation and the vector traits that govern the transmission of vector-borne diseases. Predictions of disease risk in the literature typically assume that vector traits vary instantaneously and independently of population density, and therefore do not capture the delayed response of these same traits to past biotic and abiotic environments. We argue here that to produce accurate predictions of disease risk it is necessary to account for environmentally driven and delayed instances of phenotypic plasticity. To show this, we develop a stage and phenotypically structured model for the invasive mosquito vector, Aedes albopictus, and dengue, the second most prevalent human vector-borne disease worldwide. We find that environmental variation drives a dynamic phenotypic structure in the mosquito population, which accurately predicts global patterns of mosquito trait-abundance dynamics. In turn, this interacts with disease transmission to capture historic dengue outbreaks. By comparing the model to a suite of simpler models, we reveal that it is the delayed phenotypic structure that is critical for accurate prediction. Consequently, the incorporation of vector trait relationships into transmission models is critical to improvement of early warning systems that inform mitigation and control strategies.
... are widespread throughout tropical and subtropical climates (Kraemer et al. 2015). One of the significant characteristics of Ae. aegypti is the adaptation related to laying eggs in artificial manmade containers, which enables them to survive in drought conditions and remain dormant for a longer duration before hatching (Diniz et al. 2017). Globally, Ae. aegypti populations show strong genetic differentiation (Gloria-Soria et al. 2016;Schmidt et al. 2020) and there is evidence of local adaptation, particularly with insecticide resistance (Moyes et al. 2017) and vector competence (Gloria-Soria et al. 2017;Lambrechts & Scott 2009). ...
Recent reports have disclosed the occurrence of Wolbachia in Aedes aegypti . Our study detected Wolbachia infection in Ae. aegypti by screening wild adult mosquitoes using two Wolbachia ‐specific molecular markers. Overall, 444 adult Ae. aegypti mosquitoes were collected from April 2022 to October 2022 in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Each individual sample was processed and screened for the presence of Wolbachia using selected markers, the Wolbachia ‐specific 16S rDNA and the Wolbachia surface protein gene ( wsp ), under optimized polymerase chain reaction (PCR) conditions, and sequenced. In total, 39 (8.78%) and 48 (10.81%) individual mosquito samples were determined to be infected with Wolbachia using the wsp and 16S rDNA markers, respectively. By utilizing two Wolbachi a‐specific molecular markers, our study demonstrated the presence of Wolbachia from individual Ae. aegypti samples. Our results showed a low rate of Wolbachia infection and inferred that the detected strain belongs to supergroup B.
... However, in this species, egg diapause can occur, facilitating its expansion into colder regions [6]. The related species Aedes albopictus undergoes diapause as embryonic larvae [7], and this has enabled its geographical expansion between continents [8]. In Europe, outbreaks of certain viruses such as dengue virus and chikungunya virus are vectored by Ae. albopictus, and therefore, this species may be one driver of viral emergence in temperate zones. ...
The past three decades have seen an increasing number of emerging arthropod-borne viruses in temperate regions This process is ongoing, driven by human activities such as inter-continental travel, combined with the parallel emergence of invasive arthropods and an underlying change in climate that can increase the risk of virus transmission and persistence. In addition, natural events such as bird migration can introduce viruses to new regions. Despite the apparent regularity of virus emergence, arthropod-borne viruses circulating in temperate regions face the challenge of the late autumn and winter months where the arthropod vector is inactive. Viruses therefore need mechanisms to overwinter or they will fail to establish in temperate zones. Prolonged survival of arthropod-borne viruses within the environment, outside of both vertebrate host and arthropod vector, is not thought to occur and therefore is unlikely to contribute to overwintering in temperate zones. One potential mechanism is continued infection of a vertebrate host. However, infection is generally acute, with the host either dying or producing an effective immune response that rapidly clears the virus. There are few exceptions to this, although prolonged infection associated with orbiviruses such as bluetongue virus occurs in certain mammals, and viraemic vertebrate hosts therefore can, in certain circumstances, provide a route for long-term viral persistence in the absence of active vectors. Alternatively, a virus can persist in the arthropod vector as a mechanism for overwintering. However, this is entirely dependent on the ecology of the vector itself and can be influenced by changes in the climate during the winter months. This review considers the mechanisms for virus overwintering in several key arthropod vectors in temperate areas. We also consider how this will be influenced in a warming climate.
... Climate factors like rainfall appear to precede zika and Chikungunya epidemics 31,32 . The different survival mechanisms mosquitoes have developed throughout their life histories account for their evolutionary success in tropical and temperate climates 33 . Some species exhibit the strategy of egg dormancy (either diapause or quiescence) as a reproductive tactic, which enables them to endure long periods in environments unsuitable for hatching 34 . ...
... The transition to diapause involves neuro-endocrine signaling pathways that initiate the diapause program in response to adverse conditions. Understanding these molecular mechanisms is essential for elucidating how insects perceive environmental stresses, regulate diapause programs, and engage protective pathways to enhance organismal resilience and survival in changing environments (Diniz et al., 2017). ...
