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Income inequality undermines societies: The more inequality, the more health problems, social tensions, and the lower social mobility, trust, life expectancy. Given people's tendency to legitimate existing social arrangements, the stereotype content model (SCM) argues that ambivalence-perceiving many groups as either warm or competent, but not both...
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... the SCM correlations illustrated above and the Gini coefficients were finally correlated across samples. As Table 2 shows, when ambivalence is higher (i.e., low W-C correlations), both structural factors (i.e., status and competition) are more strongly related to competence. For lower degrees of ambivalence instead (i.e., high W-C correlation), status is associated with warmth. ...
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... Finally, we included 12 items by Durante et al. (2013) investigating competence (e.g., "competent"; α = .89) and warmth (e.g., "warm"; α = .87). ...
Derogatory labels increase dehumanization in bystanders; research however has yet to investigate whether the same applies to victims themselves. In three preregistered studies ( N total = 1146), we predicted that women targeted with sexist slurs would dehumanize themselves. Participants imagined or recalled a situation in which a man addressed them with a generic insult, a sexist slur, or no insult. Then, we assessed self-dehumanization (primary and secondary emotions, perceptions of the self as an object or a person, and self-attributed warmth and competence) and meta-dehumanization (studies 2 and 3), namely the perception of the dehumanizing intentions of the speaker. Sexist slurs led participants to consider themselves as less human- and more object-like, and this effect was partially mediated by meta-dehumanization. Therefore, sexist slurs can affect women's self-perception by eliciting self-dehumanization, which negatively impacts women's wellbeing and life outcomes. Findings are discussed especially considering the debate around hate speech policing.
... This corresponds to perceptions of warmth and competence, respectively. A wealth of evidence and theory has accumulated for warmth and competence as key dimensions along which perceivers hold gender, age, and race stereotypes, among many others (e.g., Durante et al., 2013;Eisenbruch & Krasnow, 2022;Fiske, 2018;Judd et al., 2005; although not without challenge, see Koch et al., 2016). ...
Stereotypes are strategically complex. We propose that people hold not just stereotypes about what groups are generally like (e.g., “men are competitive”) but stereotypes about how groups behave toward specific groups (e.g., “men are competitive toward”)—what we call directed stereotypes. Across studies, we find that perceivers indeed hold directed stereotypes. Four studies examine directed stereotypes of sex and age (Studies 1 and 2; N = 541) and of race/ethnicity (of Asian/Black/Latino/White Americans; Studies 3 and 4; N = 769), with a focus on stereotypes of competitiveness, aggressiveness, cooperativeness, and communion. Across studies, directed stereotypes present unique patterns that both qualify and reverse well-documented stereotype patterns in the literature. For example, men are typically stereotyped as more competitive than women. However, directed stereotypes show that women are stereotyped to be more competitive than men, when this competitiveness is directed toward young women. Multiple such patterns emerge in the current data, across sex, age, and racial/ethnic stereotypes. Directed stereotypes also uniquely predict intergroup attitudes, over and above general stereotypes (Study 4). The idea of directed stereotypes is compatible with multiple theoretical perspectives and intuitive. However, they have been unexamined. We discuss the implications of the current work for thinking about the nature and measurement of social stereotypes, stereotype content, and social perception more broadly.
... A well-established body of research on social class stereotypes has demonstrated that people evaluate groups on two main dimensions: warmth (e.g., trustworthiness, friendliness) and competence (e.g., capability, assertiveness), and together these dimensions elicit specific emotional responses (Fiske, 2018). In both the U.K. and the U.S., overall, rich people are stereotyped as competent but cold, eliciting envy and jealousy, poor people are stereotyped as both incompetent and cold, eliciting disgust and contempt, and working class and middle class people are stereotyped as both competent and warm, eliciting pride and admiration (Durante et al., 2013Tanjitpiyanond et al., 2023). Less research has assessed stereotypes about the numerous intermediate groups that people perceive (e.g., lower middle class, upper middle class; Andersen & Curtis, 2012) or investigated how social class ingroup membership shapes people's stereotypes. ...
Drawing on social identity theory (SIT), this study explored social class group identity, intergroup attitudes, and views about social mobility and inequality among socioeconomically and racially/ethnically diverse adults in the U.K. ( n = 457) and the U.S. ( n = 595). U.K. participants evidenced greater consensus about the social class groups present in their society than did U.S. participants, but lower, working, middle, and upper class were commonly perceived in both contexts, and many participants self‐identified as working class (38% U.K., 17% U.S.) or middle class (45% U.K., 47% U.S.) Consistent with SIT, participants in both contexts identified with their social class ingroup (e.g., felt they belonged) and stereotyped it less harshly on dimensions (warmth or competence) on which it was generally negatively stereotyped. Importantly, middle and upper class participants tended to feel more positively (e.g., proud) about their ingroup, and believed society was more fair and equal, and upward mobility more likely, than did lower and working class participants.
... Sociability is related to the construction of effective relationships, while morality is related to constructing honest and fair relationships (Sacchi et al., 2014) Furthermore, the SCM hypothesis posits that many social stereotypes are ambivalent, i.e., that groups perceived high in competence are, in turn, perceived as low in sociability and vice versa. This result is highly robust and was also verified in a macro-study by Durante et al. (2013). These authors found that this ambivalence was more frequent and reinforced in societies with high income inequality as the trade-off between competence and warmth was extremely useful for justifying the established status quo, while univalent vectors were more frequent in nations with a low level of inequality (Durante et al., 2017). ...
... Similarly, in another study by Tanjitpiyanond et al. (2022), results showed that economic inequality widened the gap between the wealthiest and the poorest, resulting in more ambivalent stereotypes of competence and sociability between this groups. This ambivalent pattern in stereotypes of competence and sociability in situations of high inequality is not a trivial matter, as the ambivalent distribution of stereotypes may be a way to justify such inequality (Durante et al., 2013;Kay et al., 2005). ...
... Moreover, these studies argue that this ambivalence serves to justify why some nations are less unequal or wealthier than others. In this sense, ambivalent national stereotypes could help people to justify the differences between countries with high and low economic inequality (Durante et al., 2013;Jost et al., 2005;Kay et al., 2005). Moreover, in line with H2, the morality dimension was significantly more attributed to inhabitants of low-inequality countries than of high-inequality countries, possibly as a way to associate more justice and morality with low inequality, but The mediational role of competence, sociability and morality on the relationship between economic inequality and overt dehumanization Note. ...
Research on social perception has shown that people tend to construct a mental picture of national groups. Much research has been directed at exploring the influence of relevant contextual variables, such as economic inequality, on these representations. The purpose of this study is to investigate how economic inequality affects two key elements of social perception: the stereotypical dimensions of competence, sociability, and morality and the humanity attributed to the inhabitants of nations with high and low economic inequality. Countries with high and low objective inequality were selected and participants were asked to indicate to what extent they considered the inhabitants to be competent, sociable, and moral. We also asked to what extent they attributed humanity and capacity to experience primary and secondary emotions to the inhabitants of these countries. The study was carried out with a Spanish sample (N = 245). The results showed the existence of an ambivalent pattern in which more competence and less sociability were attributed to nations with low inequality and the opposite (less competence and more sociability) to nations with high inequality; and a significant tendency was found to attribute more morality to nations with low inequality than to those with high inequality. Parallel mediation analysis showed that only morality significantly connected economic inequality with the attribution of humanity. Significant differences were found in the attribution of humanity but not in the attribution of capacity to experience secondary emotions. The results are discussed in light of the Stereotype Content Model and system justification.
... 3 Stereotype content model in social psychology posits that group stereotypes and interpersonal impressions form in two dimensions: competence and warmth (Fiske et al., 2002;Klatt et al., 2016). Given the positive correlation between status and competence (Durante et al., 2013), stakeholders expect CEOs, who are very high in status, to have a high level of competence rather than warmth. CEOs' impression that they are competent is more critical in stakeholder management (Kim et al., 2018). ...
The present research examines how a temporal dimension of the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) fashion style—consistent (vs. variable) fashion—influences stakeholders' perceptions of CEO competence. Based on the temporal aspect of attribution theory, we hypothesize that stakeholders perceive those CEOs who are consistent in their clothing across various occasions as more competent than CEOs who do not portray consistency. We also consider CEO gender a key moderator of the link between fashion consistency and perceived competence. Based on gender stereotypes and relatively unclear rules about women's clothing within professional settings, we hypothesize that the enhancement of perceived competence from a consistent fashion style is mitigated for female CEOs. Furthermore, by applying a zero‐sum belief in time management to CEOs' clothing decisions, we hypothesize that perceived work engagement mediates the “gender” moderation. Three studies, including a survey and two scenario‐based experiments in which we manipulate fashion consistency and CEO gender, largely supported the hypotheses. The results emphasize the importance for CEOs to strategically manage visual cues, like fashion style, focusing on either their consistency or variability when interacting with stakeholders across different occasions.
... Early research on intergroup relations revealed that competition for limited resources motivates intergroup conflict (Sherif et al., 1961). Furthermore, several works suggest that economic insecurity may lead to greater prejudice toward groups that are stereotyped as being more competent (Caprariello et al., 2009;Connor et al., 2021;Durante et al., 2013;Durante et al., 2017). As a result, it could be that emphasizing a future with increased job losses may exacerbate negative reactions toward AI technologies, particularly if people believe AI capable of outperforming human cognitive abilities. ...
Generative Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly expanding field that aims to develop machines capable of performing tasks that were previously considered unique to humans, such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, and decision-making. The recent release of several tools based on AI (e.g. ChatGPT) has sparked debates on the potential of this technology and garnered widespread attention in the mainstream media.
Using a socio-psychological approach, in three studies (total N = 410), we demonstrate that when faced with Generative AI’s ability to reproduce the complexity of human cognitive capabilities, participants reported significantly higher negative emotions than those in the control group. In turn, negative emotions elicited by a specific type of AI (e.g. generative AI) were associated to the perception of threat extended to AI technologies as a whole, understood as a threat to various aspects of human life, including jobs, resources, identity, uniqueness, and value.
Our findings emphasise the importance of considering emotional and societal impacts when developing and deploying advanced AI technologies and implementing responsible guidelines to minimise adverse effects. As AI technology advances, addressing public concerns and regulating its usage is crucial for the benefit of society. To achieve this goal, collaboration between experts, policymakers, and the public is necessary.
... Groups again which are seen as both highly capable and very friendly and trustworthy are admired and might be associated with pride. As research on the applicability of the SCM across national contexts has repeatedly shown (e.g., Asbrock et al., 2014;Cuddy et al., 2014;Durante et al., 2013), this is the kind of categorization most likely associated with the ingroup, thus ensuring a positively connoted distinct social identity (social identity theory, Tajfel, 1981;Tajfel & Turner, 1979, 1986. Naturally, attributing a victim identity to an outgroup, implies this group's limited agency (needs-based model of reconciliation, Shnabel & Nadler, 2008). ...
In this final chapter we present an integration of the insights obtained through our multimethod research on the portrayal of Jews and Judaism in the West and Muslims and Islam in the West in German print media. Initially, we relate our results to the potential ramifications the identified media portrayals might have for Jews, Muslims, and Germans. We thereby highlight how the different theories applied throughout our studies relate to one another, thus suggesting a broader theoretical framework for media analysis on the portrayal of non-dominant groups. Subsequently, we present policy recommendations and recommendations for journalistic practice that we identify based on the undertaken analyses. We conclude by reflecting on our multimethod approach, discussing limitations of our own research, and highlighting worthwhile questions for further studies.
... Low SES individuals are deemed increasingly incompetent but with a compensating high level of warmth. 175 Increasing levels of attributing stereotypes dependent on social class could increase the importance of socioeconomic status for the human tendency to divide people into Us and Them. 43 Sapolsky has described the importance of Us and Them, including the fact that empathy for groups of people we consider as part of our own (Us) is automatic, while empathy for those outside of our group (Them) demands cognitive work. ...
... First, building on population representative survey data, we test the SCM in an egalitarian welfare state characterized by low unemployment and income inequality. Studies suggest that group stereotypes vary across countries according to differences in income inequality and type of welfare regime (Durante et al. 2013;Durante, Tablante & Fiske 2017;Schofield, Suomi & Butterworth 2022). Second, although the literature on the SCM has come a long way in describing the complex nature of stereotypes and prejudice, few studies have explored how individual characteristics of the perceiver influence stereotype content. ...
... This variation is explained by structural features of society, such as varying levels of income inequality and different types of welfare state regimes. Studies have, for example, found that, in societies with higher levels of income inequality, ambivalent stereotypes are more prevalent (Durante et al. 2013) and the poor are viewed as more incompetent (Durante, Tablante & Fiske 2017). In countries with low inequality and unemployment and high levels of trust, researchers have documented that people held warmer cultural stereotypes of welfare recipients and perceive them as more deserving of support (Schofield, Suomi & Butterworth 2022). ...
... A key explanation for this variation is that higher inequality and competition between groups require more compensation. Ambivalent stereotypes may legitimize the status quo and help to tolerate inequality, because when one's group is low on one dimension, it is rewarded on the other (I'm poor, but goodhearted) (Durante et al. 2013). ...
A central insight from the research building on the Stereotype Content Model (SMC) is that different groups elicit different emotional and threat reactions. To advance our knowledge about which groups are likely to share experiences of discrimination and prejudice, we must explore the content of the stereotypes connected to different immigrant groups. Building on population representative survey data, the study applies a split-sample experimental design to test the SCM in Norway, an egalitarian welfare state characterized by low-income inequality. The results confirm the relevance of the SCM model in an egalitarian welfare setting, displaying an ethnic hierarchy expressed through social stereotypes. The results further indicate that ambivalent stereotypes of immigrants are limited in the Norwegian context. Finally, this study extends the SCM model by examining how respondents’ motivation to control prejudice (MCP) moderate stereotype judgement and finds that respondents with a high MCP rated the groups that are stereotyped as cold and incompetent more positively than individuals with a low MCP. Thus, individual propensity to hold back on prejudices influences expressions of stereotype content.
... The stereotype content model (SCM) proposes that people attribute two primary characteristics based on social status: competence and warmth. In this model, high status is associated with high competence but low warmth, whereas low status is associated with low competence and high warmth (Cuddy et al., 2009;Durante et al., 2013;Fiske et al., 2002). Importantly, competence and merit are related but not equivalent constructs. ...
The coevolution of bullying and friendship networks and the moderating effects of classroom bullying popularity norms were examined in a sample of 965 students (52.1% boys) in 22 fourth‐ and fifth‐grade classes. Longitudinal social network analysis showed that children were more likely to bully their friends' victims (bully influence effect) and to be bullied by their friends' bullies (victim influence effect); two children bullying the same child were likely to be friends (bully selection effect), and two victims bullied by the same child were likely to be friends (victim selection effect). Bullying popularity norms served as moderators, and the bully selection effect was significant weaker in the context of low bullying popularity norms. This study adds understanding of bullying as a group process and provides implications for preventing school bullying.
