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Accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon dates from Togolok 1 (Cerasetti et al., in press a, in press b). Specific context from given as (trench, stratigraphic unit [SU], square). Graph adapted from OxCal v4.4.4 (Bronk Ramsey, 2009) with corresponding dates in last column of table. All dates were calibrated with 95.4% probability unless otherwise noted using IntCal20 (Reimer et al., 2020). Symbol key: ′Dates calibrated with OxCal 3.10 (Bronk Ramsey, 1995, 2001), IntCal13 (Reimer et al., 2013). °Dates calibrated with OxCal 4.3.2, Bronk Ramsey (2009), IntCal13 (Reimer et al., 2020). ..Dates calibrated with OxCal 4.4.2 (Bronk Ramsey, 2009), IntCal20 (Reimer et al., 2013). *Newly reported date from this publication. Codes for labs: CEDAD- CEntro di Fisica applicata, DAtazione e Diagnostica, University of Salento, Italy; SUERC- Scottish Universities Environmental Research Centre Radiocarbon Lab, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom; OS, National Ocean Science AMS Lab, Woods Hole, United States; OxA, Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, University of Oxford, United Kingdom.
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Southern Central Asia witnessed widespread expansion in urbanism and exchange, between roughly 2200 and 1500 B.C., fostering a new cultural florescence, sometimes referred to as the Greater Khorasan Civilization. Decades of detailed archeological investigation have focused on the development of urban settlements, political systems, and inter-region...
Citations
... The lack of eggshells from any older Central Asian archaeological sites (for an updated list of sites where flotation and water screening work has previously been conducted in Central Asia see refs. [21][22][23][24] hints to a rapid rise of egg-laying and chicken rearing across Iranian West Asia (Hellenistic and Zoroastrian traditions), an economic practice that appears to have remained prominent through the medieval period in this part of the world. The sites in our study have all been well-dated with extensive radiocarbon sequences complementing ceramic and numismatic seriations. ...
The origins and dispersal of the chicken across the ancient world remains one of the most enigmatic questions regarding Eurasian domesticated animals. The lack of agreement concerning timing and centers of origin is due to issues with morphological identifications, a lack of direct dating, and poor preservation of thin, brittle bird bones. Here we show that chickens were widely raised across southern Central Asia from the fourth century BC through medieval periods, likely dispersing along the ancient Silk Road. We present archaeological and molecular evidence for the raising of chickens for egg production, based on material from 12 different archaeological sites spanning a millennium and a half. These eggshells were recovered in high abundance at all of these sites, suggesting that chickens may have been an important part of the overall diet and that chickens may have lost seasonal egg-laying
... Finding lentils and chickpeas in Penjikent and Afrasiab is noteworthy for the Middle Zarafshan Basin, since they had not been recovered prior and were not mentioned in the textual sources for this region prior. Fava bean is a rare legume in Central Asia, and the earliest evidence comes from two sites in Turkmenistan-Togolok [44] and Adji-Kui [45]-dated to the late third and early second millennia BC. Fava bean has also been reported at Mugh, and the authors of the report suggested that the beans were morphologically similar to ones from Afghanistan [46]. ...
The Zarafshan River runs from the mountains of Tajikistan and terminates in the sands of the Kyzyl-Kum Desert in Uzbekistan; it served as a communication route and homeland for the Sogdians. The Sogdians are historically depicted as merchants existing from the end of the first millennium BC through the first millennium AD. While recent research has provided the first glimpse into cultivation, commerce, communication, and consumption in the Lower Zarafshan, the agricultural heartland of the Middle Zarafshan Basin has remained unstudied. This paper presents the results of archaeobotanical investigations conducted at five ancient urban sites/areas spanning the fifth to the twelfth centuries AD: Kainar (Penjikent citadel), Penjikent (shahristan), Sanjar-Shah, Kuk-Tosh (pre-Mongol Penjikent), and Afrasiab. Collectively, these data show that cereals, legumes, oil/fiber crops, fruits, and nuts were cultivated on the fertile Zarafshan floodplains. In this paper, we discuss evidence for the diversification of the agricultural assemblage over time, including the introduction of new staple crops and fruits into an already complex cultivation system. In addition, we contrast our data with previously published results from sites along the course of the Zarafshan to determine whether there is a dietary difference between pre-and post-Islamic conquest periods at settlements located along the river.
... There is more archaeobotanical evidence for legume consumption from the second half of the first millennium ce, when cultivation of Lens and Pisum became more prominent or culinary practices were changed. The earliest finds of V. faba (n = 2) date to the second millennium bce sites of Adji-Kui (Spengler et al. 2018a) and Togolok (Billings et al. 2022), located in the Murghab region of Turkmenistan. However these specimens are a microcarpic form, whereas a macrocarpic variety was clearly introduced in the medieval period. ...
Drawing on archaeobotanical evidence from the central regions of Central Asia, we explore crop diffusion during the first millennium ce. We present a comprehensive summary of archaeobotanical data retrieved from this region dating to this period in order to better understand cultural drivers pushing agricultural intensification and crop diversification. We use these data to evaluate the applicability of Watson’s concept of a Medieval Green Revolution. Despite ecological limits to cultivation of most of Watson’s crops in much of Central Asia, some of these crops, particularly Gossypium arboretum/herbaceum (cotton) and Oryza sativa (rice), are prominent in the region today. In both cases there is now good archaeobotanical evidence showing that they were cultivated prior to the Islamic conquests in Central Asia. Moreover, the occurrence of several crops – Solanum melongena (eggplant), Ficus carica (fig), Morus alba/nigra (mulberry), and two spices – Rhus coriaria (sumac) and Coriandrum sativum (coriander) – have first been observed in phases dated to the 19th century ce. There is reason to believe that elaborate irrigation systems and seasonal rotation cycles were already in place in this region prior to the development of a centralized Arabic and Islamic government and are likely tied to urbanization in the first half of the first millennium ce. We suggest that most of the trappings of Watson’s model were present prior to this, but, as Watson’s thesis is multifaceted their presence alone does not nullify the model. Additionally, the ecological and cultural diversity of Central Asia means that a proper evaluation of Watson’s model requires a regionally specific examination.
... Some Prunus sp. fragments recovered by the authors from Bronze Age sites in Turkmenistan (Adji Kui 1 and Togolok 1) [90,91] resemble published drawings of insititia stones from Samovodene [89]; however, ethnobotanical remains of Prunus species collected in Central Asia, including insititia and cerasifera plums, look dissimilar to the archaeological specimens and the unclear taxonomic division hinders precise identification of such types of remains. Table S1) grouped into 1000-year increments shown (a) on a topographic map and (b) in an age-longitude plot. ...
The Prunus genus contains many of the most economically significant arboreal crops, cultivated globally, today. Despite the economic significance of these domesticated species, the pre-cultivation ranges, processes of domestication, and routes of prehistoric dispersal for all of the economically significant species remain unresolved. Among the European plums, even the taxonomic classification has been heavily debated over the past several decades. In this manuscript, we compile archaeobotanical evidence for the most prominent large-fruiting members of Prunus, including peach, apricot, almonds, sloes, and the main plum types. By mapping out the chronology and geographic distributions of these species, we are able to discuss aspects of their domestication and dispersal more clearly, as well as identify gaps in the data and unanswered questions. We suggest that a clearer understanding of these processes will say a lot about ancient peoples, as the cultivation of delayed return crops is an indicator of a strong concept of land tenure and the specialization of these cultivation strategies seems to be tied to urbanism and reliable markets. Likewise, the evolution of domestication traits in long-generation perennials, especially within Rosaceae, represents awareness of grafting and cloning practices.
This article briefly describes the key issues related to the juridical aspect of the activities of a farmer in Turkmenistan, locally called daikhan. To show the broader context of the issue, it outlines the importance of agriculture in the history and culture of this Central Asian country. The article analyzes the status of daikhan in Turkmen legislation, taking into consideration the circumstances of the land reform. The author presents his opinion on the statutory provisions regarding the position of the Turkmen farmer and predicts future trends in Turkmen agricultural law.
The spread of language families is hypothesized to have occurred via agricultural and demographic transitions that drove populations outwards from agricultural centres of origin, “demic diffusion”. However, the geographical origins of language families are often tied to where greatest linguistic diversity is seen. For the Sino-Tibetan language family this creates a conflict, as maximal linguistic diversity lies in North-Eastern India and Nepal, whereas centres of Neolithic crop domestication in the Yellow and Yangtze River Basins have low linguistic diversity today. Therefore either Sino-Tibetan languages originated in North-Eastern India, and spread by means other than demic diffusion; or multiple diffusions of agriculturalists occurred from a once linguistically diverse homeland, in which linguistic diversity was maintained or increased as peoples spread westwards, but was lost in the homeland.
To explore these two hypotheses, using evidence from linguistics, archaeology and genetics, we compiled existing data on Chinese millets, cultivated trees, and agricultural tools (harvesting knives, shouldered spades) alongside data for wheat and barley from Western Eurasia. These elements were explored alongside existing information from genetic studies and for West Asian animal domesticates.
We differentiate a northern cultural and southern demic diffusion for various elements originating in East Asia. In Central Asia a small number of eastern Eurasian elements (millets by 2500 BC, spades by 1st millennium BC) spread west through pre-existing agricultural populations by cultural-diffusion, but significantly did not include language families nor genetic lineages. The southern dispersal driven by demic diffusion of millet farmers carried a more expansive range of eastern cultural elements; millets, spades, hairpins, harvesting knives, house plans, and significantly languages and genetic lineages. We hypothesize a period of demic diffusion beginning c.2500-2000 BC from the southeastern Plateau through Eastern Tibet and the Himalayan foothills, brought peoples, languages and Eastern Eurasian cultural elements eventually to the Kashmir region. We conclude two routes, the Sichuan–Tibet–Kashmir and Yunnan–Assam ones, are the most plausible pathways linking Northern China and Northern India during this period.
