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There continues to be a need for an in-situ sensor system to monitor the engine oil of internal combustion engines. Engine oil needs to be monitored for contaminants and depletion of additives. While various sensor systems have been designed and evaluated, there is still a need to develop and evaluate new sensing technologies. This study evaluated...
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... increased with frequency from 0.68 cm −1 at 1.0 THz to 1.92 cm −1 at 2.5 THz. The linear model at 1.75 THz was the best model based on R 2 (Figure 4). Although the range of absorption coefficient values for some contamination levels was wider than the others, none of the absorption coefficient ranges among the glycol contamination levels overlapped, and the absorption coefficient means of each contamination level were significantly different from all other contamination levels. ...
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... Engine oil oxidation causes increased acidity, viscosity, gums, and sludge formation, and the depletion of chemical additives during service leads to engine oil deterioration [3]. Additives contribute to the resistance to oxidative stress that produces increased engine oil acidity, and oxidation occurs due to the interaction of air with oil [4] and contaminants such as glycol that react with engine oil and oxidize engine oil [5,6]. However, using petroleum-derived oil base and refining additives in lubricants is linked to adverse effects on human health and the environment [7]. ...
To verify the influence of magnetic flux on the characteristics of SAE 10W-30 gasoline engine oil when the engine oil is exposed to different magnetic fluxes 0, 6, 9, and 13 Volt. The following oil characteristics were measured: viscosity at 40 and 100 °C, and total acid number (TAN) mg KOH/g. The research was carried out in a completely randomized design with three replications for each treatment under the 5% probability level to compare the means of the treatments. The results of the experiment showed that there were significant differences in the studied properties when the engine oil was exposed to the above magnetic fluxes and, inversely, especially the magnetic flux of 13 Volt, which led to a decrease in the viscosity of the oils at 40 °C to 67.704 cSt and 14.1 cSt at 100 °C, in addition to a decrease in the total acid number to 2.1 mgKOH/g. The results of this study promise the possibility of the magnetic flux affecting changes in the properties of gasoline engine oil, which may contribute to improving the performance of engine oils during operation.
... The engine itself, through a seal fault, or the engine cooling systems, through a damaged water pump seal, are both potential causes of glycol contamination in engine oil [2]. When motor oil and glycol combine, the oil oxidizes [3] and loses its protective qualities [4,5]. Fuel consumption is one of the indicators for evaluating the performance of internal combustion engines [6] [7]. ...
... at a volumetric rate of 200 ppm, the figure was 0.4459 kg/KW.h, the highest value. Glycol contamination of engine oil rendered it ineffective as a lubricant [4]. Figure 2 shows the effect of oil contamination with glycol on the thermal braking efficiency, where there are significant differences under the level of probability 5% when increasing contamination volumetric rates from 0 ppm to 100 ppm and then to 200 ppm. ...
The performance of a diesel engine was tested with diesel oil contaminated with glycol at the engineering workshop/Department of Agricultural Machines and Equipment / College of the Agricultural Engineering Sciences at the University of Baghdad. To investigate the impact of different concentrations of glycol on the performance of a diesel engine, an experimental water-cooled four-stroke motor was utilized, with oil containing 0, 100, and 200 parts per million (ppm). Specific fuel consumption, thermal efficiency, friction power, and exhaust gas temperature were examined as performance indicators. To compare the significance of the treatments, the study employed a full randomization design (CRD), with three replicates for each treatment at the 5% probability level. Experiment results demonstrated significant variations in the characteristics under study. For example, the highest rates of Brake-specific fuel consumption (kg/ KW.h) (0.4459), frictional power (7.8837 kW), and exhaust gas temperature (173.6 0 C) were all observed at oil contamination levels of 200 ppm glycol. Meanwhile, the Brake thermal efficiency was the lowest of any measured system at only 17.5623%. Glycol oil pollution was shown to have a considerable effect on engine performance.
... The MPs had a characteristic shape of "needles". A synthetic motor oil "Toyota 5w40" with dynamic viscosity of 0.126 Pa·s and density of 810 kg/m 3 having a high transparency in the THz range was chosen as the host fluid [43,44]. The concentration of MPs in a MF was estimated using the formula: ...
A model of a magnetically controlled linear polarizer of terahertz (THz) waves based on a cell filled with a magnetic fluid and controlled by an external magnetic field was proposed. The magnetic fluid consisted of a synthetic oil with high transparency in the THz range and ferromagnetic alloy microparticles. Selection of the ferromagnetic particles size and concentration, and also parameters of the external magnetic field was conducted. It was shown that when using ferromagnetic particles of 10–35 μm size, a concentration of 10 wt.%, and a magnetic field with induction of 6.7–57.2 mT, the created construction works as a linear polarizer of the THz wave in the ranged from 0.3 to 1.5 THz, with the degree of polarization of the initially non-polarized THz wave transmitted through the cell being at least of 80%.
... The precise measurement of engine oil degradation can be done via laboratory testing of sample batches extracted for analysis. Laboratory methods can be used to quantify a variety of oil parameters, including kinematic viscosity [6]; acid and alkaline index [7,8]; degree of oxidation, nitration and sulfonation [9,10]; water and glycol contents [11,12]; levels of wear elements (debris from friction pairs) [13], or antioxidant content [14,15]. Together, these readings can provide a full picture of oil quality. ...
The aim of this study was to assess whether electrical parameters (capacitance and conductivity) of fresh engine oils—tested over a wide range of measurement voltage frequencies—can be used for oil quality assessment and its identification, based on physicochemical properties. The study encompassed 41 commercial engine oils with different quality ratings (American Petroleum Institute (API) and European Automobile Manufacturers’ Association (ACEA)). As part of the study, the oils were tested for their total base number (TBN) and total acid number (TAN), as well as their electrical parameters, including impedance magnitude, phase shift angle, conductance, susceptance, capacitance and quality factor. Next, the results for all of the samples were examined for correlations between the mean electrical parameters and the test voltage frequency. A statistical analysis (k-means and agglomerative hierarchical clustering) was applied to group oils with similar readings, drawing on the values for all electrical parameters to produce group oils with the highest similarity to each other into clusters. The results show that the electrical-based diagnostics of fresh engine oils can serve as a highly selective method for identifying oil quality, offering much higher resolution than assessments based on the TBN or the TAN. This is further supported by the cluster analysis, with five clusters generated for electrical parameters of the oils, compared to only three generated for TAN- and TBN-based measurements. Out of all the tested electrical parameters, capacitance, impedance magnitude and quality factor were found to be the most promising for diagnostic purposes. The value of electrical parameters of fresh engine oils is mostly dependent on the test voltage frequency (with the exception of capacitance). The correlations identified in the course of the study can be used to select for those frequency ranges that offer the highest diagnostic utility.
... The literature describes other problems that result from lower oil viscosity (or degraded oil in general), including reducing the effectiveness of oil additives, increasing oil volatility, and increasing the rate of oil oxidation [28,30,38,39]. Deterioration of lubricating oil properties in turn forces more frequent oil changes and increases engine-operating costs [40,41]. ...
Fuel contamination of engine lubricating oil has been previously determined to arise from two independent phenomena: the effect on oil flash point, and the effect of changing lubrication conditions on tribological pairs. This paper combines these effects and holistically analyzes the consequences of fuel in the lubricating oil of a trunk piston engine on the risk of crankcase explosion. The author hypothesized that diesel fuel as an oil contaminant increases the risk of an explosion in the crankcase of an engine due to the independent interaction of two factors: (1) changes in the oil's combustible properties, and (2) deterioration of the lubrication conditions of the engine's tribological nodes, such as main bearings, piston pins, or crank bearings. An experiment was performed to evaluate the rheological, ignition, and lubrication properties of two oils (SAE 30 and SAE 40) commonly used for the recirculation lubrication of marine trunk piston engines for different levels of diesel contamination. The hypothesis was partially confirmed, and the results show that contamination of the lubricating oil with diesel fuel in an amount of no more than 10% does not significantly affect the risk of explosion in the crankcase. However, diesel concentrations above 10% call for corrective action because the viscosity index, lubricity, coefficient of friction and oil film resistance change significantly. Deterioration of the tribological conditions of the engine bearings, as seen in the change in viscosity, viscosity index, and lubricity of the oil, causes an increase in bearing temperature and the possibility of hot spots leading to crankcase explosion.
... Gas chromatography (ASTM 4291) has often been employed to detect glycol contamination in used engine oil, whereby water is used to help extract glycol and is centrifuged out, and the precipitates are introduced into a gas chromatographer to separate and detect the polar compounds [1,8]. A terahertz time domain spectrometer (THz-TDS) has also successfully been used to detect glycol contamination in engine oil down to the 300 ppm range [17]. Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy (ASTM E2412) has been used for a wide range of applications [18][19][20][21][22][23], and it has been commonly used to analyze engine oil in order to detect water contamination [24,25], oxidation [26], and also the absorption bands associated with glycol contamination [27], which is why it is used by several laboratories that perform oil analysis [1,8,28]. ...
An in-depth experimental study of the matrix effect of antifreeze (ethylene glycol) and water contamination of engine oil through FT-IR spectroscopy. With a comparison of the percent by volume concentration of contaminated fresh 15W-40 engine oil, there appeared to be a noticeable reduction in the O–H stretching signal in the infrared spectrum when ethylene glycol based antifreeze was included as a contaminant. The contaminants of distilled water, a 50/50 mixture of water and commercial ethylene glycol antifreeze, and straight ethylene glycol antifreeze were compared and a signal reduction in the O–H stretch was clearly evident when glycol was present. Doubling the volume of the 50/50 mixture as compared to water alone still resulted in a weaker O–H stretching signal. The possibility that this signal reduction was due to the larger ethylene glycol molecule having fewer O–H bonds in a given sample size was eliminated by comparing samples with the same number of O–H bonds per unit volume. The strong hydrogen bonding between that of water and glycol appeared to reduce the O–H stretching signal, even after comparing the different sample types at concentrations with the same number of O–H bonds per unit volume. Tukey’s highly significant difference was used to show that samples of the 50/50 mixture and straight glycol were not reliably distinguishable from one another when comparing the same number of O–H bonds per unit volume but readily distinguishable from that of water as the lone contaminant.
... Infrared analysis (IR) is a powerful tool for analysis of degradation of engine oil (Shinde and Bewoor, 2020b)- . Parameters such as oxidation, nitration, etc., along with contaminants such as fuel, glycol (Abdulmunem et al., 2020), soot, sulphate by-products, anti-wear components, etc., can be traced using the IR absorption spectrum (Agoston et al., 2008)- (Kral et al., 2014) or atomic force microscopy (Kampet al., 2014). Oxidation index is the primary parameters that is examined by FT-IR spectroscopy in the process of used oil analysis (van de Voort et al., 2006). ...
Engine oil deterioration level affects working and performance of internal combustion engine. Hence, it is necessary to compare the deterioration level of engine oils, with focus on kinematic viscosity, oxidation, nitration etc. which are important oil testing parameters. If without quantifying the remaining useful life of the engine oil, it is changed too early, results in insufficient use of already depleting resources and also unwanted impact on environment while disposing. Changing the engine oil too late with deteriorated quality, will hamper the performance of engine. To determine optimum point for changing engine oil, in present study oil testing is carried out for vehicle which is due for servicing. The oil samples collected randomly from vehicles which came to an authorized service station for servicing covering a large range from the first servicing to the fifth servicing were tested. Oil samples were first tested by a viscometer and FTIR spectroscopy in a laboratory as per standard. The samples were then tested on a setup of sensors designed and developed by the authors. The results provided a fairly strong positive relationship between important engine oil deterioration parameters such as kinematic viscosity, oxidation and nitration with the determination coefficient R ² = 0.97.Out of total collected samples about 8% samples were within usable limit. The study uncovers different oil deterioration sensor methods which provide low cost, on-site handy solutions for oil condition monitoring and the forecasting of the remaining useful life of the engine oil.
... If such oil is used again, it will completely solidify and subsequently seize the engine. If glycol penetrates the oil filling and we want to remove it, it is not enough to change the oil, but it is necessary to mechanically clean the entire oil system [25,27]. ...
This article focuses on the issue of motor oils used in the engines of off-road mobile machinery (NRMM), more specifically tractors. The primary goal of the paper is to determine the appropriate replacement interval for these oils. The physical properties of the examined samples were first determined by conventional instruments. Furthermore, the concentration of abrasive metals, contaminants, and additive elements were measured using an optical emission spectrometer. Lastly, the content of water, fuel, glycol, and the products of oxidation, nitration, and sulphation were determined by using infrared spectrometry. The measured values were compared to the limit values. Based on the processing and evaluation of these analyses, the overall condition of the oils was assessed and subsequently the optimal exchange interval of the examined oils was determined. In addition, a risk analysis of the outage was performed. Due to the high yields of crops, farmers can lose a significant amount of product when a tractor is not functioning during the harvest period. This loss for calculated in the paper.
Metasurface structures have proven to be effective in enhancing terahertz sensing signals and can thus be used as sensors to improve terahertz detection sensitivity. However, the sensitivity is limited by the poor spatial overlap between the analytes and the local electric field of the metasurface. In this work, a novel design of a floating bilayer metasurface structure for terahertz sensing is proposed and investigated. This structure supports a sharp toroidal dipole resonance and can concentrate near‐field energy on the analyte and metal atoms rather than on the substrate surface by floating the metal atoms. Consequently, the sensitivity is significantly improved to as high as 362 GHz RIU⁻¹; theoretically, this is approximately 2.6 times higher than that of the common metasurface. The ability of the floating bilayer metasurface to quantitatively detect chlorothalonil is experimentally demonstrated. The resonance peak shows a significant frequency shift of 7 GHz for a change of 0.0001 mg dL⁻¹ in chlorothalonil concentration, reaching up to 86 GHz when the change in chlorothalonil concentration is 100 mg dL⁻¹; this is approximately 6.6 times higher than that of the common metasurface. This work provides opportunities for metasurface to realize ultrasensitive sensing in the terahertz regime.
The development of knowledge management in dynamic viscosity enables the effective use of fluid to optimize processes and innovations. By collecting, organizing, sharing and applying knowledge, professionals in various industries can take advantage of the potential of dynamic viscosity for optimal performance. Robust model results were developed to predict the viscosity of SiO2/SAE 50 nanofluid (NF) using RSM with a knowledge management approach in laboratory conditions of temperatures T = 25–50 °C, solid volume fractions in the range of SVF= 0–1.5% and shear rates in the range of SR= 666.5–7998 s⁻¹ has been reported to establish a background in using the mentioned NF at high engine speed. After examining the four statistical models Linear, Quadratic, Cubic and Quartic in terms of statistical parameters extracted from ANOVA and measurement charts of the models, it was determined that the model Quartic has high precision compared to the three models in predicting the desired response. Thus, the values of R² = 0.9923, Predicted R² =0.9887 and Adjusted R² = 0.9906 were reported for the selected model; and the MOD values of the Quartic model are − 7 < MOD < +8. Also, a correlation relationship consisting of three independent parameters has been presented to predict viscosity, and it has been determined that viscosity dependence on SR, and NF behavior is non-Newtonian. Comparison of base fluid (BF) viscosity contour with and without the use of nanoparticles (NPs) at high engine speed has shown that the use of SiO2 NPs has led to an increase in viscosity. Also, the use of SiO2 nanoparticles has led to an increase in viscosity by 33.27% and 25% respectively at the minimum and maximum temperature at high engine speed. Finally, the viscosity optimization was done by minimizing the amount of NP consumption and the maximum viscosity at high engine speed in laboratory conditions, and the optimal value was obtained as 212.063 mPa.sec
