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Diverse applications of nanoparticles (NP) have been revolutionary for various industrial sectors worldwide. In particular, magnetic nanoparticles (MNP) have gained great interest because of their applications in specialized medical areas. This review starts with a brief overview of the magnetic behavior of MNP and a short description of their most...
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... AM appears as a novel fabrication method with high potential for medical applications in general and specifically 3D porous structures, since geometrical complexity, design control of porosity, reproducible internal morphology, and customization features are a reality. [252] Nowadays, in biomedical research area, the production of scaffolds for bone tissue repair is mainly served by AM techniques, [159,[253][254][255][256] as it is a potent tool for creating custom scaffolds to address a variety of musculoskeletal disorders marked by bone loss with a significant clinical impact ( Figure 5). [257] AM techniques are grouped into seven main categories [258] that can be distinguished mainly by the nature of the feedstock and the way of layers assembling. ...
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... However, the literature reveals persistent challenges in 3D printing magnetic structures. In DLP, commonly used magnetic materials include Fe 3 O 4 [ 44 ], NdFeB [ 45 , 46 ], SrFe 12 O 19 [ 47 ], and Fe [ 48 ]. Soft magnetic materials like Fe, despite their high permeability and ease of magnetization, provide weak driving force. ...
Soft structures driven by magnetic fields exhibit the characteristics of being unencumbered and rapidly responsive, enabling the fabrication of various soft robots according to specific requirements. However, soft structures made from a single magnetic material cannot meet the multifunctional demands of practical scenarios, necessitating the development of soft robot fabrication technologies with composite structures of diverse materials. A novel enhanced digital light processing (DLP) 3-dimensional (3D) printing technology has been developed, capable of printing composite magnetic structures with different materials in a single step. Furthermore, a soft robot with a hard magnetic material–superparamagnetic material composite was designed and printed, demonstrating its thermal effect under high-frequency magnetic fields and the editability of the magnetic domains of the hard magnetic material. The robot exhibits a range of locomotive behaviors, including crawling, rolling, and swimming. Under the influence of a 1-Hz actuation magnetic field, the normalized velocities for these modes of motion are recorded as 0.31 body length per second for crawling, 1.88 body length per second for rolling, and 0.14 body length per second for swimming. The robot has demonstrated its capacity to navigate uneven terrain, surmount barriers, and engage in directed locomotion, along with the ability to capture and transport objects. Additionally, it has showcased swimming capabilities within environments characterized by low Reynolds numbers and high fluid viscosities, findings that corroborate simulation analyses. The multimaterial 3D printing technology introduced in this research presents extensive potential for the design and manufacturing of multifunctional soft robots.
... On the other hand, nanomaterials exhibited unique traits which influence their physical and chemical properties, consequently adjusting biological activity. Among several nanomaterials, magnetic nanoparticles individually incorporated into various types of materials, such as biopolymers like polycaprolactone (PCL) and bioceramics, have been dramatically developed in bone tissue applications, to Simulating the natural cellular environment [5,6]. ...
Simulating the natural cellular environment using magnetic stimuli could be a potential strategy to promote bone tissue regeneration. This study unveiled a novel 3D printed composite scaffold containing polycaprolactone (PCL) and cobalt ferrite/forsterite core-shell nanoparticles (CFF-NPs) to investigate physical, mechanical and biological properties of magnetoactive scaffold under static magnetic field. For this purpose, core-shell structure is synthesized through a two-step synthesis strategy in which cobalt ferrite nanoparticles are prepared via sol-gel combustion method and then are coated through sol-gel method with forsterite. The characterization regarding CFF-NPs reveals that Mg2SiO4-coated CoFe2O4 nanoparticles is successfully synthesized with a core-shell structure. Afterwards, CFF-NPs are embedded within the PCL with different percentages, ultimately 3D printed scaffolds were fabricated. The in vitro assessments demonstrated that the incorporated CFF-NPs are able to cause a decrease in contact angle which was responsible for modulating purposefully the degradation rate of PCL scaffold, resulting in providing the obligatory environment for bone growth. In addition, it was observed that scaffolds including PCL combined with CFF-NPs are susceptible to improve the mechanical performance of nanocomposite scaffolds, up to a certain concentration (50% CFF-NPs and 50% PCL) with compressive modulus of 42.5 MPa. Moreover, when being exposed to simulated body fluid (SBF) solution, hydroxyapatite deposition on the surface of scaffolds was observed. Thus, these compositions may be useful for improving the osteointegration between the implant and bone tissue after implantation. Finally, the simultaneous effect of magnetic nanoparticles and magnetic field of 125 mT evaluated on cellular behavior of scaffolds. The results showed that the cell viability of all groups under magnetic field were better than that for standard condition. Likewise, SEM images of cultured cells on scaffolds confirmed that the combined effect of these factors could be lead to promote better cell adhesion, dispersion, and bone regeneration.
... The small size of nanoscale biomaterials allows them to interact with biological systems at cellular and molecular levels, and their unique physical and chemical properties can influence their interactions with biological systems [35]. As illustrated in (Figure 1) MNPs have a wide range of advantages for medical applications [36]. ...
... Magnetic calcium phosphates (CaP) mainly focused on magnetic hydroxyapatite (MHA, Ca 10 (PO 4 ) 6 (OH) 2 ), have attracted considerable attention in the last years, due to their promising multifunctional applications in magnetic hyperthermia treatment, tissue engineering and bone regeneration [1][2][3][4][5]. Advances in scaffold design, particularly through additive manufacturing (AM) technologies, have highlighted the potential for polymer-based bone scaffolds in regenerative applications, providing context for the development of polymer-based magnetic composites that could similarly be used in scaffold fabrication or scaffold coating [6,7]. ...
... The synthesis of MHA can be achieved through different techniques, being chemical precipitation, hydrothermal, sol-gel, mechanochemical and emulsion synthesis the most commonly explored [5]. The synthesis route and conditions used considerably influence the structural [9], and consequently, the magnetic and magnetothermal behaviourcrucial for their magnetic hyperthermia performance -of the resulting materials. ...
... Although nanometric particles have been extensively studied and show promising magnetic and magneto-thermal properties for magnetic hyperthermia treatments [5], micron-sized particles provide a smaller surface area, favourable for the development of highly concentrated inks for Direct Ink Writing (DIW) technologies [45,46]. The use of microparticles in these inks increases the packing density, facilitating the production of structurally strong structures with a high material loading [45,47]. ...
Magnetic calcium phosphate (CaP) nanoparticles have been explored for a wide range of applications, namely biodevices for bone regeneration and local cancer treating through hyperthermia therapy. Numerous shaping techniques to obtain dense and porous ceramic structures are based on colloidal processing principles, in which parameters such as crystallinity, morphology and particle size play an important role in obtaining high solids concentration suspensions to guarantee ceramic structures with high particle packing. With these considerations in mind, this work aims to obtain magnetic and thermo-responsive CaP microparticles, via wet chemical precipitation with the simultaneous addition of Fe2+ and Fe3+. Magnetic microparticles with the ability to preserve their magnetic and magneto-thermal properties have been successfully achieved, due to the presence of well-distributed iron oxide nanocrystallites surrounded by CaP phases. This accomplishment promises great potential for the development of biodevices based on colloidal processing, as some Additive Manufacturing technologies.
... [1][2][3] During the past few decades, biomagnetic scaffolds comprising calcium phosphate-based bioceramics combined with magnetic materials have gained extensive recognition and application in the eld of bone therapy and regeneration. [4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13] Calcium phosphate-based bioceramics are biocompatible and known for their ability to improve osteoconductivity. Meanwhile, the inclusion of a magnetic element has been shown to result in magnetic hyperthermia capable of killing tumor cells when exposed to an external magnetic eld (EMF). ...
The treatment and regeneration of bone defects, especially tumor-induced defects, is an issue in clinical practice and remains a major challenge for bone substitute material invention. In this research, a composite material of biomimetic bone-like apatite based on trace element co-doped apatite (Ca10−δMδ(PO4)5.5(CO3)0.5(OH)2; M = trace elements of Mg, Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, Ni, Mo, Sr and BO3³⁻; THA)-integrated-biocompatible magnetic Mn–Zn ferrite ((Mn, Zn)Fe2O4 nanoparticles, BioMags) called THAiBioMags was prepared via a co-precipitation method. Its characteristics, i.e., physical properties, hyperthermia performance, ion/drug delivery, were investigated in vitro using osteoblasts (bone-forming cells) and in vivo using zebrafish. The synthesized THAiBioMags particles revealed superparamagnetic behaviour at room temperature. Under the influence of an alternating magnetic field, THAiBioMags particles demonstrated a change in temperature, indicating their potential for magnetic hyperthermia, in which THAiBioMags further exhibited a specific absorption rate (SAR) value of 9.44 W g⁻¹ (I = 44 A, H = 6.03 kA m⁻¹ and f = 130 kHz). In addition, the as-prepared particles demonstrated sustained ion/drug (doxorubicin (DOX)) release under physiological pH conditions. Biological assay analysis revealed that THAiBioMags exhibited no toxicity towards osteoblast cells and demonstrated excellent cell adhesion properties. In vivo studies employing an embryonic zebrafish model showed the non-toxic nature of the synthesized THAiBioMags particles, as revealed by evaluation of the survivability, hatching rate, and embryonic morphology. These results could potentially lead to the design and fabrication of magnetic scaffolds to be used in therapeutic treatment and bone regeneration.
... In general, the unique properties of NMs such as larger surface-area-to-volume ratio [130,131], antibacterial properties [132], high thermal and electrical conductivity [129,130], outstanding mechanical properties [133,134], magnetic properties [135][136][137][138], and exceptional biocompatibility have attracted a wide spectrum of research interests in the development of scaffolds for tissue engineering. The properties NMs can be adjusted through meticulous regulation of their dimensions, morphology, synthesis parameters, and suitable functionalization techniques [139]. ...
... These diverse external stimulation modalities augment intrinsic tissue regeneration and synergize with bioengineered scaffolds and cellular therapies to provide a comprehensive approach to regenerative medicine. Treatment of musculoskeletal disorders has been significantly advanced by integrating electrical [148], ultrasound [149], topographical [150], magnetic [151,152], and photonic stimulations [153] into clinical practices. These techniques aim to expand current capabilities in tissue regeneration, offering enhanced outcomes for patients with musculoskeletal injuries (Fig. 6) [154]. ...
The musculoskeletal system, which is vital for movement, support, and protection, can be impaired by disorders such as osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, and muscular dystrophy. This review focuses on the advances in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, specifically aimed at alleviating these disorders. It explores the roles of cell therapy, particularly Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs) and Adipose-Derived Stem Cells (ADSCs), biomaterials, and biomolecules/external stimulations in fostering bone and muscle regeneration. The current research underscores the potential of MSCs and ADSCs despite the persistent challenges of cell scarcity, inconsistent outcomes , and safety concerns. Moreover, integrating exogenous materials such as scaffolds and external stimuli like electrical stimulation and growth factors shows promise in enhancing musculoskeletal regeneration. This review emphasizes the need for comprehensive studies and adopting innovative techniques together to refine and advance these multi-therapeutic strategies, ultimately benefiting patients with musculoskeletal disorders.
... More complex formulations are also known. Namely, biopolymer/CHDA biocomposites encapsulating magnetic nanoparticles [398], as well as many other magnetic formulations [399], have been prepared. More details on HA/polymer composites and hybrid formulations can be found in other reviews [400][401][402][403]. ...
... Namely, zirconia and PSZ [931][932][933][934]945,[953][954][955][956][957][958][959][960][961], magnesia [962], alumina [941,944,[963][964][965][966], alumina + magnesia [967], titania [968][969][970][971], alumina + titania [972], iron oxides [973][974][975][976] (Figure 9), other oxides and mixtures thereof [947,[977][978][979][980][981][982], silica and/or glass [983][984][985][986][987][988][989][990][991][992][993][994], titania + bioactive glass [995], wollastonite [996][997][998], mullite [999][1000][1001][1002], natural aluminosilicates [1003,1004], nitrates [1005], various metals and alloys [185,[203][204][205]551,670,671,950,, calcium sulfate [1042][1043][1044][1045][1046][1047], calcium carbonate [1048,1049], silicon carbide [663,664,946], barium titanate [1050][1051][1052], zeolites [1053], boron nitride [1054,1055], zirconium nitride [1056], carbon [1057,1058], strontium hexaferrite [1059], and some other materials [1060][1061][1062] have been added to CaPO4 to create biocomposites and improve reliability. Among them, Fe3O4/HA formulations have both photocatalytic [973,974] and magnetic properties [399,975,976]. Other magnetic additives to CaPO4-containing formulations comprise ferrites CoFe2O4, NiFe2O4, CuFe2O4, oxides CoO, NiO, and Gd2O3, as well as metallic Nd, Gd, and Sm [1063]. ...
The goal of this review is to present a wide range of hybrid formulations and composites containing calcium orthophosphates (abbreviated as CaPO4) that are suitable for use in biomedical applications and currently on the market. The bioactive, biocompatible, and osteoconductive properties of various CaPO4-based formulations make them valuable in the rapidly developing field of biomedical research, both in vitro and in vivo. Due to the brittleness of CaPO4, it is essential to combine the desired osteologic properties of ceramic CaPO4 with those of other compounds to create novel, multifunctional bone graft biomaterials. Consequently, this analysis offers a thorough overview of the hybrid formulations and CaPO4-based composites that are currently known. To do this, a comprehensive search of the literature on the subject was carried out in all significant databases to extract pertinent papers. There have been many formulations found with different material compositions , production methods, structural and bioactive features, and in vitro and in vivo properties. When these formulations contain additional biofunctional ingredients, such as drugs, proteins, enzymes , or antibacterial agents, they offer improved biomedical applications. Moreover, a lot of these formulations allow cell loading and promote the development of smart formulations based on CaPO4. This evaluation also discusses basic problems and scientific difficulties that call for more investigation and advancements. It also indicates perspectives for the future.
... Due to their various properties, the use of MNPs in bone tissue regeneration has become widespread in recent years. Nevertheless, the biological fate of MNPs remains a matter of concern [33,79]. Extensive studies have been conducted on the biological fate of various formulations of MNPs. ...
The development of new three-dimensional (3D) biomaterials with advanced versatile properties is critical to the success of tissue engineering (TE) applications. Here, (a) bioactive decellularized tendon extracellular matrix (dECM) with a sol-gel transition feature at physiological temperature, (b) halloysite nanotubes (HNT) with known mechanical properties and bioactivity, and (c) magnetic nanoparticles (MNP) with superparamagnetic and osteogenic properties were combined to develop a new scaffold that could be used in prospective bone TE applications. Deposition of MNPs on HNTs resulted in magnetic nanostructures without agglomeration of MNPs. A completely cell-free, collagen- and glycosaminoglycan-rich dECM was obtained and characterized. dECM-based scaffolds incorporated with 1%, 2% and 4% MNP-HNT were analysed for their physical, chemical, and in vitro biological properties. FTIR, XRD and VSM analyses confirmed the presence of dECM, HNT and MNP in all scaffold types. The capacity to form apatite layer upon incubation in simulated body fluid revealed that dECM-MNP-HNT is a bioactive material. Combining dECM with MNP-HNT improved the thermal stability and compressive strength of the macroporous scaffolds upto 2% MNP-HNT. In vitro cytotoxicity and hemolysis experiments showed that the scaffolds were essentially biocompatible. Human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BM-MSCs) adhered and proliferated well on the macroporous constructs containing 1% and 2% MNP-HNT; and remained metabolically active for at least 21 days in vitro. Collectively, the findings support the idea that magnetic nanocomposite dECM scaffolds containing MNP-HNT could be a potential template for BTE applications.
... It can be used as a photothermal agent in tumour therapeutic [15][16][17], and as a drug carrier to release special drugs at targeted points in the body [18][19][20]. Since it is biodegradable and non-toxic, it has been extensively utilised in tissue engineering and especially in bone scaffolds [21][22][23]. ...
The impact of nanoparticle size on the elastic properties of polymeric bio-nanocomposites was studied using atomistic molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. Molecular structures of nanocomposites comprising biomaterials were developed by placing spherical magnetite nanoparticles (MNPs) at the center of the simulation boxes, surrounded by amorphous polypyrrole (PPy) polymer, homogeneously. Three models of nanocomposites with the same particle volume fractions and different particle sizes were considered. The Lennard-Jones 6-12 potential was used to model the interface interaction between polymer and particles. Initially, obtained mechanical properties for pristine PPy and magnetite in bulk state showed acceptable agreement with experimental data. Subsequently, simulation results illustrated that incorporating MNP into PPy matrix improves the elastic modulus of the matrix by 28-58%, and more importantly, decreasing the size of the nanoparticle from 2.40 to 1.80 nm in the system leads to increasing the Young’s modulus of the nanocomposite from a 3.20 to 3.94 GPa. Furthermore, the atomic investigation demonstrated that this change in elastic modulus is due to the change in interatomic interaction between nanoparticle and polymer when the nanoparticle size changes. Finally, the comparison between results of MD and micromechanical analysis shows that as the size of the nanoparticle in nanocomposites increases, the elastic properties of nanocomposites converge to the results obtained by micromechanical approach.
